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CDEI practice questions

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Question 1Foundations of Data Ethics

Which statement best defines data ethics as a field of study?

  1. The legal process of registering a trademark on a dataset
  2. The technical standards for encrypting databases at rest
  3. The study of moral principles governing how data is collected, processed, and used Correct answer.
  4. The practice of compressing datasets to reduce storage costs

Explanation

Data ethics examines the moral principles and values that should guide the creation, handling, sharing, and use of data. It is broader than law or technology because it asks what ought to be done, not only what is permitted or technically possible.

Question 2Foundations of Data Ethics

A hospital wants to publish anonymized patient records for research. Which ethical consideration is most directly raised by this plan?

  1. Whether the research team has enough disk space for the records
  2. Whether the records are stored in a relational database
  3. Whether the anonymization truly prevents re-identification of individuals Correct answer.
  4. Whether the hospital's website uses a modern design

Explanation

Publishing data about people raises the question of whether privacy protections actually hold, and re-identification risk is the central concern with releasing supposedly anonymized records. Storage capacity, website design, and database type are operational matters without direct ethical weight here.

Question 3Foundations of Data Ethics

Which concept describes a person's ability to control how information about them is collected and shared?

  1. Data latency
  2. Schema normalization
  3. Data redundancy
  4. Informational privacy Correct answer.

Explanation

Informational privacy concerns an individual's control over the collection, use, and disclosure of data about themselves. The other options are technical data-management terms unrelated to personal control.

Question 4Foundations of Data Ethics

Informed consent in data collection requires that participants:

  1. Understand the purpose and risks before agreeing to participate Correct answer.
  2. Waive any ability to withdraw from the study
  3. Receive payment for every data point they contribute
  4. Sign over all future rights to their data permanently

Explanation

Informed consent means individuals are given understandable information about purpose, use, and risks and then voluntarily agree. Payment is not required, and consent should not be treated as an irreversible transfer of all rights.

Question 5Foundations of Data Ethics

A company uses a hiring algorithm that consistently rejects qualified candidates from one demographic group. Which ethical principle is most directly violated?

  1. Data minimization
  2. Reproducibility
  3. Interoperability
  4. Fairness and non-discrimination Correct answer.

Explanation

Systematically disadvantaging a demographic group implicates fairness and non-discrimination, which require comparable treatment and outcomes across groups. The other options describe data-handling or system-quality properties rather than justice toward people.

Question 6Foundations of Data Ethics

Which of the following best describes algorithmic bias?

  1. Systematic and unfair outcomes produced by an algorithm or its data Correct answer.
  2. The tendency of storage media to degrade over time
  3. A deliberate attempt to slow down a network
  4. A random hardware fault during computation

Explanation

Algorithmic bias refers to systematic, repeatable skew in outcomes that disadvantages some groups, often arising from data, design, or deployment context. It is not random error or physical decay.

Question 7Foundations of Data Ethics

Transparency in data practices most directly means that organizations:

  1. Avoid collecting any personal data at all
  2. Make information about data collection and use available to affected people Correct answer.
  3. Store all data in a single central location
  4. Publish their full source code without exception

Explanation

Transparency requires that people affected by data practices can learn what is collected, why, and how it is used. It does not demand unrestricted code release or the abandonment of data collection.

Question 8Foundations of Data Ethics

Which practice best reflects the principle of data minimization?

  1. Collecting every field that might ever be useful
  2. Sharing data broadly to maximize reuse
  3. Retaining all records indefinitely for potential future needs
  4. Collecting only the data necessary for a stated purpose Correct answer.

Explanation

Data minimization holds that collection should be limited to what is adequate and relevant for a specified purpose. Hoarding data or broad sharing increases risk without a justified need.

Question 9Foundations of Data Ethics

A retailer shares customer purchase histories with a marketing partner without telling customers. Which principle is most clearly breached?

  1. Purpose limitation and transparency Correct answer.
  2. Schema versioning
  3. Data compression efficiency
  4. Network throughput

Explanation

Using data for an undisclosed secondary purpose and failing to inform customers breaches purpose limitation and transparency. The other options are technical concerns with no bearing on the customers' expectations.

Question 10Foundations of Data Ethics

What distinguishes accountability from mere compliance in data ethics?

  1. Accountability applies only to government agencies
  2. Accountability is identical to obtaining user consent
  3. Accountability requires demonstrable responsibility for outcomes, not just following rules Correct answer.
  4. Accountability means outsourcing decisions to vendors

Explanation

Accountability means an organization can show it is answerable for how its data practices affect people, including when rules are silent or ambiguous. Compliance checks boxes against specified requirements, which is necessary but not sufficient.

Question 11Foundations of Data Ethics

A team removes names and addresses from a dataset but keeps precise birth dates and zip codes. What is the main ethical risk?

  1. The dataset will be too large to process
  2. The data will lose all analytical value
  3. Individuals may still be re-identified through combination with other data Correct answer.
  4. The file format may become obsolete

Explanation

Quasi-identifiers such as birth date and zip code can be combined with other datasets to single out individuals, so removing direct identifiers alone may not protect privacy. The remaining risk is re-identification, not size, format, or usefulness.

Question 12Foundations of Data Ethics

Which scenario best illustrates a conflict between individual privacy and public benefit?

  1. A city analyzes aggregated mobility data to plan public transit while potentially revealing individual movement patterns Correct answer.
  2. A school changes its grading scale
  3. A library extends its opening hours
  4. A company upgrades its servers to improve uptime

Explanation

Using mobility data for public planning can yield broad social benefit while creating surveillance risk for individuals, which is the classic privacy-versus-benefit tension. The other scenarios do not involve tradeoffs about personal data.

Question 13Foundations of Data Ethics

What does the principle of purpose limitation require of an organization?

  1. Limiting the number of employees who can access any system
  2. Using collected data only for the purposes specified when it was gathered Correct answer.
  3. Restricting data storage to a single country
  4. Capping the total volume of data collected per year

Explanation

Purpose limitation ties data use to the purposes that were disclosed and justified at collection, so later uses need compatible justification or fresh consent. Access controls, location, and volume caps are separate concerns.

Question 14Foundations of Data Ethics

A model trained mostly on data from one region performs poorly for users elsewhere. Which ethical concern does this raise?

  1. Encryption key rotation
  2. Query optimization
  3. Representation and equity in training data Correct answer.
  4. Backup frequency

Explanation

When training data underrepresents a population, the resulting system can serve that population poorly, raising concerns about representation and equitable performance. The other options are operational data-management topics.

Question 15Foundations of Data Ethics

Which action best demonstrates respect for user autonomy in a data-driven product?

  1. Sharing data with partners before users notice
  2. Pre-selecting the most privacy-invasive settings by default
  3. Providing clear choices about data use and honoring opt-outs Correct answer.
  4. Hiding data settings deep in a menu

Explanation

Respecting autonomy means giving people meaningful, understandable choices and then honoring their decisions, including opting out. Dark patterns such as preselected invasive defaults or buried settings undermine that autonomy.

Question 16Foundations of Data Ethics

What is the primary ethical purpose of conducting a data protection impact assessment before launching a project?

  1. To identify and mitigate risks to individuals before harm occurs Correct answer.
  2. To reduce the number of engineers needed
  3. To increase the project's marketing reach
  4. To guarantee the project will be profitable

Explanation

A data protection impact assessment is a forward-looking process to surface risks to individuals and design mitigations before deployment. Its aim is harm prevention, not marketing, staffing, or profit.

Question 17Foundations of Data Ethics

An analyst discovers that a dataset contains sensitive information about minors. What is the most ethically sound immediate step?

  1. Delete the entire project and stop all work permanently
  2. Apply heightened protections and consult the relevant policy before any use Correct answer.
  3. Publish the dataset to enable external review
  4. Ignore the finding because the data was already collected

Explanation

Data about minors typically warrants heightened safeguards, so the sound step is to pause, apply stronger protections, and consult applicable policy before proceeding. Immediate publication or ignoring the finding would expose vulnerable people to harm.

Question 18Foundations of Data Ethics

Which statement best captures the relationship between law and ethics in data practice?

  1. Law and ethics are identical, so legal compliance always settles moral questions
  2. Ethics sets a floor while law sets higher aspirations
  3. Ethics applies only to researchers, not to companies
  4. Law sets a minimum standard, while ethics may demand more than the law requires Correct answer.

Explanation

Legal rules establish enforceable minimums, but ethical reasoning can require conduct beyond what statutes mandate, especially where technology outpaces regulation. Treating law as the ceiling of obligation can leave serious harms unaddressed.

Question 19Foundations of Data Ethics

What does the concept of data stewardship emphasize?

  1. Selling data to the highest bidder
  2. Maximizing the speed of data ingestion
  3. Managing data responsibly on behalf of the people it describes Correct answer.
  4. Restricting data to a single department

Explanation

Data stewardship frames data handlers as caretakers who owe responsible management to the individuals and communities represented in the data. It is about duty of care, not throughput, monetization, or siloing.

Question 20Foundations of Data Ethics

A company trains a model on scraped public posts and later discovers the model can reproduce identifiable personal details. Which response is most consistent with ethical practice?

  1. Release the model immediately to maximize transparency
  2. Assess and mitigate the exposure, such as filtering outputs and restricting release Correct answer.
  3. Deny that the reproduction is possible
  4. Argue that public data carries no obligations at all

Explanation

Public availability does not eliminate duties of care; when a model can surface personal details, the responsible response is to measure and reduce that exposure before release. Immediate release or denial would compound the risk.

Question 21Foundations of Data Ethics

Which approach best addresses the tension between model explainability and predictive performance in a high-stakes decision?

  1. Avoid documenting model behavior to prevent liability
  2. Always choose the simplest model regardless of accuracy
  3. Always choose the most accurate model regardless of explainability
  4. Match the level of explanation to the stakes and provide contestability where decisions affect people Correct answer.

Explanation

The appropriate balance depends on context: higher-stakes decisions affecting individuals call for greater explainability and a way to contest outcomes, even at some performance cost. Absolutist choices on either side ignore the tradeoff, and avoiding documentation undermines accountability.

Question 22Foundations of Data Ethics

A team finds that a fairness metric improves when a protected attribute is removed from the model inputs, but outcomes for that group remain worse. What is the best interpretation?

  1. Removing the attribute guarantees fair outcomes
  2. Fairness cannot be assessed without considering outcomes and proxies Correct answer.
  3. The model is fair because the attribute is absent
  4. Protected attributes should always be retained as inputs

Explanation

Dropping an attribute does not remove its influence, because correlated proxies can still encode group membership, so fairness must be evaluated through outcomes rather than inputs alone. Neither blind removal nor mandatory inclusion is a universal rule.

Question 23Foundations of Data Ethics

Which practice most directly supports contestability for people affected by automated decisions?

  1. Publishing aggregate accuracy statistics only
  2. Requiring users to accept outcomes without recourse
  3. Providing a channel to question and appeal an automated decision with human review Correct answer.
  4. Removing all records of how decisions were made

Explanation

Contestability means affected people can challenge a decision and obtain meaningful review, often by a human. Aggregate statistics, erased records, and no-recourse policies all block that ability.

Question 24Foundations of Data Ethics

An organization wants to reuse data for a new purpose that was not anticipated at collection. Which reasoning best reflects ethical purpose limitation?

  1. Any reuse is acceptable because the data already exists
  2. Reuse requires deleting the original consent records
  3. Reuse is acceptable only if the new purpose is compatible or fresh consent is obtained Correct answer.
  4. Reuse is acceptable if the new purpose is more profitable

Explanation

Purpose limitation permits new uses only when they are compatible with the original purpose or when appropriate consent or authorization is secured. Mere existence of data or profitability does not justify expanded use.

Question 25Foundations of Data Ethics

Which consideration is most important when deciding whether to use synthetic data to protect privacy?

  1. Whether synthetic data can be generated without any source data
  2. Whether synthetic data eliminates the need for any governance
  3. Whether the synthetic data preserves the statistical properties needed for the task without leaking real records Correct answer.
  4. Whether synthetic data is always smaller in file size

Explanation

Synthetic data must serve its analytical purpose while not memorizing or revealing real individuals, so both utility and leakage risk must be evaluated. File size, governance elimination, and source-free generation are not the deciding factors.

Question 26Foundations of Data Ethics

Which statement best defines data ethics as a field of practice?

  1. A framework of values and norms guiding responsible handling of data Correct answer.
  2. A method for compressing datasets to reduce storage costs
  3. A technical standard for encrypting data in transit
  4. A set of laws governing how records must be stored and audited

Explanation

Data ethics concerns the values, principles, and norms that guide how data is collected, used, and shared, going beyond what is merely legal. It addresses questions of right and wrong conduct toward people affected by data practices.

Question 27Foundations of Data Ethics

Which concept describes the idea that people should be able to influence decisions made about them using their data?

  1. Data autonomy Correct answer.
  2. Data fidelity
  3. Data provenance
  4. Data sovereignty

Explanation

Data autonomy refers to individuals retaining meaningful control over how their data is used and over decisions that data drives about them. It centers the person's agency rather than the organization's interests.

Question 28Foundations of Data Ethics

A hospital plans to share de-identified records with a research consortium. Before sharing, the team debates whether patients would consider the new research use consistent with why their data was collected. Which ethical principle are they primarily applying?

  1. Data portability
  2. Access control
  3. Purpose limitation Correct answer.
  4. Data integrity

Explanation

Purpose limitation holds that data should be used only for purposes compatible with those disclosed at collection. Asking whether a new use aligns with patients' original expectations is a direct application of that principle.

Question 29Foundations of Data Ethics

A team wants to add an ethics review step to its data project intake process. Which design choice most directly operationalizes ethical review rather than merely documenting compliance?

  1. Archiving all project documentation for a fixed retention period
  2. Having reviewers assess foreseeable harms to affected people and propose mitigations Correct answer.
  3. Adding a clause to vendor contracts about lawful data use
  4. Requiring a checklist signed by the project sponsor before launch

Explanation

Operationalizing ethics means evaluating foreseeable impacts on people and deciding how to reduce harm, which goes beyond confirming that rules were followed. This forward-looking harm assessment is what distinguishes ethical review from compliance paperwork.

Question 30Foundations of Data Ethics

An organization cites consent as justification for a data practice. Which condition is most essential for that consent to be ethically meaningful?

  1. The consent was collected at the same time as onboarding
  2. The consent is recorded in a searchable database
  3. The consent form is short and uses plain language
  4. The person could realistically refuse without serious detriment Correct answer.

Explanation

Meaningful consent requires a genuine ability to say no; if refusal carries serious costs, agreement is not voluntary. Form design and recordkeeping matter for quality but cannot substitute for the absence of coercion.

Question 31Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which ethical theory evaluates the rightness of an action solely by its consequences?

  1. Divine command theory
  2. Virtue ethics
  3. Consequentialism Correct answer.
  4. Deontology

Explanation

Consequentialism holds that the moral status of an action depends entirely on its outcomes, not on the intrinsic nature of the act or the agent's character. Deontology, virtue ethics, and divine command theory locate morality in duty, character, or divine will respectively.

Question 32Ethical Frameworks and Theories

A manager chooses the policy that produces the greatest total benefit for the largest number of stakeholders. Which principle is being applied?

  1. Veil of ignorance
  2. Doctrine of double effect
  3. Utilitarian calculus Correct answer.
  4. Categorical imperative

Explanation

Utilitarianism, a form of consequentialism, directs agents to maximize aggregate welfare across all affected parties. The other options are deontological or contractarian constructs that do not aggregate benefit in this way.

Question 33Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Kant's categorical imperative requires that an agent act only according to maxims that could be:

  1. Expected to maximize happiness
  2. Approved by a majority of stakeholders
  3. Willed as a universal law Correct answer.
  4. Endorsed by a virtuous role model

Explanation

The first formulation of the categorical imperative demands that a maxim be universalizable without contradiction. Majority approval, welfare maximization, and role-model endorsement belong to other frameworks.

Question 34Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which concept is central to virtue ethics as developed by Aristotle?

  1. Eudaimonia Correct answer.
  2. Maxim
  3. Original position
  4. Utility

Explanation

Aristotelian virtue ethics centers on eudaimonia, human flourishing achieved through habituated virtuous activity. Utility, maxims, and the original position belong to utilitarian, Kantian, and contractarian traditions.

Question 35Ethical Frameworks and Theories

The doctrine of double effect permits an action with a foreseen harmful side effect when:

  1. The harm is smaller than the benefit in every possible alternative
  2. The harm is intended as a means to a good end
  3. The action itself is morally permissible and the harm is unintended Correct answer.
  4. The agent obtains consent from everyone affected

Explanation

The doctrine of double effect requires that the act itself be morally good or neutral, that the harmful effect not be intended, and that the good effect not be produced through the harm. Proportionality matters but is not the sole condition.

Question 36Ethical Frameworks and Theories

An engineer faces a conflict between loyalty to an employer and a duty to protect public safety. Which approach best characterizes a deontological resolution?

  1. Choose the option that reflects the engineer's strongest personal trait
  2. Defer to the employer because of an implicit contract
  3. Prioritize the duty that cannot be overridden without violating a moral rule Correct answer.
  4. Weigh which outcome produces the most total welfare

Explanation

Deontology resolves conflicts by identifying duties and determining which are binding or overriding, often treating certain obligations as stringent constraints. Welfare maximization, character appeals, and blanket deference reflect other frameworks.

Question 37Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Rawls's veil of ignorance is designed primarily to ensure that principles of justice are:

  1. Fair to all parties regardless of their position Correct answer.
  2. Consistent with majority preferences
  3. Grounded in natural law
  4. Efficient for the economy

Explanation

By depriving parties of knowledge about their place in society, the veil of ignorance forces them to choose principles that are fair to everyone. Efficiency, majority preference, and natural law are separate concerns.

Question 38Ethical Frameworks and Theories

A company adopts a rule because it treats every similarly situated customer identically, even though the rule reduces total profit. This decision best reflects which value?

  1. Fiduciary duty
  2. Paternalism
  3. Efficiency
  4. Impartiality Correct answer.

Explanation

Impartiality requires consistent treatment of like cases without favoring particular interests, even at a cost to profit. Efficiency, paternalism, and fiduciary duty address different considerations.

Question 39Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which statement best distinguishes act utilitarianism from rule utilitarianism?

  1. Act utilitarianism applies only to institutions, while rule utilitarianism applies to individuals
  2. Act utilitarianism is deontological, while rule utilitarianism is consequentialist
  3. Act utilitarianism rejects consequences, while rule utilitarianism relies on them
  4. Act utilitarianism evaluates individual actions by their consequences, while rule utilitarianism evaluates rules by their consequences Correct answer.

Explanation

Both are consequentialist, but act utilitarianism assesses each action's outcomes directly, whereas rule utilitarianism assesses general rules by the outcomes of following them. The other options misstate the theories' commitments.

Question 40Ethical Frameworks and Theories

The principle of universalizability in Kantian ethics is violated when an agent:

  1. Acts on a maxim that, if universalized, would defeat its own purpose Correct answer.
  2. Acts on a maxim that could consistently be adopted by everyone
  3. Considers the consequences of an action before acting
  4. Consults stakeholders before making a decision

Explanation

A maxim fails universalizability when generalizing it makes the very practice it depends on impossible, such as making deceptive promises. Consistent universalization, consequence consideration, and consultation do not violate the principle.

Question 41Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which ethical framework treats moral rules as context-dependent guides rather than absolute laws, emphasizing sensitivity to particular situations?

  1. Kantian deontology
  2. Social contract theory
  3. Utilitarianism
  4. Situation ethics Correct answer.

Explanation

Situation ethics holds that the right action depends on the particular circumstances and the demands of love or context, rather than fixed universal rules. Deontology, utilitarianism, and contract theory each rely on general principles or aggregate measures.

Question 42Ethical Frameworks and Theories

The ethics of care emphasizes which feature that traditional principle-based theories are said to underweight?

  1. Universalizable maxims
  2. Relationships and responsiveness to particular others Correct answer.
  3. Impartial rule application
  4. Maximizing aggregate utility

Explanation

Care ethics foregrounds relational obligations, attentiveness, and responsiveness to specific persons, arguing that impartial principle-based approaches neglect these dimensions. The other options describe utilitarian or Kantian emphases.

Question 43Ethical Frameworks and Theories

A whistleblower leaks documents to prevent ongoing harm, knowing the leak will also harm a colleague's reputation. Under the doctrine of double effect, the key question is whether:

  1. The public would approve of the leak
  2. The harm to the colleague is foreseen but unintended and proportionate Correct answer.
  3. The whistleblower feels strongly about the issue
  4. The colleague's harm is intended as a means

Explanation

Double effect permits foreseen but unintended harm when the act is permissible, the harm is not a means to the good, and the good outweighs the harm. Intent, proportionality, and the absence of using harm as a means are the operative tests.

Question 44Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which of the following best expresses the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?

  1. Hypothetical imperatives are absolute, while categorical imperatives are conditional
  2. Hypothetical imperatives depend on desired ends, while categorical imperatives bind regardless of desire Correct answer.
  3. Hypothetical imperatives are consequences, while categorical imperatives are virtues
  4. Hypothetical imperatives apply only to institutions, while categorical imperatives apply to persons

Explanation

A hypothetical imperative commands action as a means to some desired end and thus depends on that end; a categorical imperative commands unconditionally. The other options invert or misdescribe the distinction.

Question 45Ethical Frameworks and Theories

A practitioner uses a framework that asks which choice a person of good character would make in the situation. This approach is best classified as:

  1. Virtue-based Correct answer.
  2. Contractarian
  3. Consequentialist
  4. Deontological

Explanation

Asking what a person of good character would do appeals to character traits and practical wisdom, which are hallmarks of virtue ethics. Consequentialism, contractarianism, and deontology rely on outcomes, agreements, or duties instead.

Question 46Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Moral relativism, understood descriptively, claims that:

  1. Moral judgments differ across cultures and individuals Correct answer.
  2. Moral claims are meaningless statements of emotion
  3. Moral duties derive from rational universalizability
  4. There is a single universal moral truth

Explanation

Descriptive relativism is the empirical claim that moral beliefs and practices vary across cultures or individuals. It does not assert a universal truth, emotivism, or Kantian rationalism.

Question 47Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which criticism is most commonly leveled against act utilitarianism?

  1. It may justify sacrificing individual rights for aggregate benefit Correct answer.
  2. It denies that character matters in any way
  3. It ignores consequences entirely
  4. It requires acting only from duty

Explanation

A standard objection is that act utilitarianism can sanction violating individual rights or fairness when doing so maximizes total welfare. It does not ignore consequences, require duty-based action, or deny character outright.

Question 48Ethical Frameworks and Theories

In social contract theory, moral and political obligations are grounded in:

  1. Divine revelation
  2. Hypothetical or actual agreement among rational parties Correct answer.
  3. The greatest happiness of the greatest number
  4. The natural hierarchy of human ends

Explanation

Contract theories derive obligations from what rational parties would or do agree to under specified conditions. Divine revelation, natural hierarchy, and aggregate happiness belong to other traditions.

Question 49Ethical Frameworks and Theories

A data ethics board must decide whether to deploy a model that benefits many users but predictably misclassifies a small, identifiable group. A Rawlsian analysis would most likely prioritize:

  1. The intentions of the developers
  2. The efficiency of the deployment process
  3. The position of the least advantaged group Correct answer.
  4. The total net benefit across all users

Explanation

Rawls's difference principle evaluates arrangements by how they affect the least advantaged, so a Rawlsian would scrutinize the burden on the identifiable group. Aggregate benefit, developer intentions, and process efficiency are not the Rawlsian priority.

Question 50Ethical Frameworks and Theories

Which scenario best illustrates the problem of moral luck as discussed in ethical theory?

  1. Two drivers both speed, but only one causes a crash, and we judge them differently Correct answer.
  2. A company reports its emissions accurately
  3. Two people disagree about whether a tax is fair
  4. A person follows a rule despite personal cost

Explanation

Moral luck concerns cases where factors outside an agent's control affect our moral assessment of the same underlying choice. The speeding example isolates outcome luck; the others involve disagreement, rule-following, or transparency rather than luck.