Geography, Environment, and Natural Resources
What to know
Afghanistan is landlocked, mountainous, and arid to semi-arid, dominated by the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya basin. Its rivers-Amu, Helmand, Kabul, Hari Rud, and Murghab-are central to irrigation and to transboundary disputes with Iran (Helmand) and Central Asian states (Amu). The country sits on seismic faults and faces earthquakes, drought, and floods. Natural resources include copper (Aynak), iron ore (Hajigak), lithium, rare earths, talc, and gemstones; estimates of value are speculative because reserves are poorly surveyed and infrastructure is lacking. Environmental stress includes groundwater depletion, deforestation, air pollution in Kabul, and climate-driven displacement.
Concepts to master
Watershed geography and downstream riparian politics; resource estimates versus proven reserves; the resource-curse and enclave-economy concepts; seismic and climate risk; the Helmand River treaty with Iran (1973).
Traps
Questions often cite mineral valuations as if audited facts-they are estimates. Another trap: confusing the Helmand with the Amu when discussing Iran; the Helmand flows into Sistan. Examiners also test whether you know Afghanistan's landlocked status drives transit dependence.
Rule of thumb
Separate geology (what exists) from economics (what is extractable at what cost), and always identify the downstream state in a water dispute.