Age of Reformation
What you must understand
Treat the Reformation as a political, social, and theological rupture, not just a dispute over doctrine. Core concepts: justification by faith alone, sola scriptura, the priesthood of all believers, and the rejection of papal authority. Know Luther (1517 Ninety-Five Theses, printing, German princes' protection), Calvin (Geneva, predestination, discipline, consistory), and the English Reformation (Henry VIII's annulment and Act of Supremacy, then Edwardian Protestantism, Mary's restoration, Elizabeth's settlement).
The Catholic/Counter-Reformation includes the Council of Trent (doctrine clarified, seminaries, reform of abuses), the Jesuits, the Index of Prohibited Books, and the Inquisition. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) accepted cuius regio, eius religio for Lutherans only; the Peace of Westphalia (1648) extended recognition and is often cited for state sovereignty. Remember the social consequences: literacy and printing, peasant revolts, changes in marriage and family law, and the Wars of Religion that followed.
Traps
- Do not say Luther intended to split the church; he sought reform.
- Do not conflate Calvinist predestination with Luther's justification doctrine.
- Do not treat the English Reformation as purely theological; dynastic and financial motives were central.
- Augsburg recognized Lutherans only - not Calvinists.
Rule of thumb
For any reformer, ask three questions: What is the authority? What saves a person? What happens to the church's structure and property?