Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments
What you must understand
Link the Scientific Revolution to the Enlightenment. Scientific concepts: heliocentrism (Copernicus, Galileo), laws of planetary motion (Kepler), mechanics and gravity (Newton), and the empirical/inductive method associated with Bacon, alongside Descartes' deductive rationalism. Emphasize that the new science challenged Aristotelian and scholastic authority and relied on mathematics, instruments, and communication among scholars.
The Enlightenment applied reason to society. Know natural rights (Locke), separation of powers (Montesquieu), popular sovereignty and general will (Rousseau), religious toleration (Voltaire), and Enlightened absolutism (Frederick II, Joseph II, Catherine II - reformist but limited). Understand the public sphere: salons, coffeehouses, journals, and the Encyclopédie. Also note challenges to Enlightenment optimism, such as Rousseau's critique of progress and later Romantic reactions.
Traps
- Do not claim the church simply suppressed all science; patronage and clerical scientists existed.
- Do not conflate Locke's natural rights with Rousseau's general will.
- Enlightened absolutists rarely surrendered real power.
- The Scientific Revolution was gradual and contested, not a single break.
Rule of thumb
When asked about influence, trace a specific idea to a specific institution: toleration → press and salons; separation of powers → constitutional design; general will → popular sovereignty claims.