Metaphysics and Epistemology: Reality, Knowledge, Mind and Freedom
What you must understand
In epistemology, know the tripartite analysis of knowledge (justified true belief), the Gettier problem, foundationalism versus coherentism, rationalism versus empiricism, and scepticism (Descartes's method of doubt, the evil demon). Understand a priori versus a posteriori, analytic versus synthetic, and the problem of induction (Hume).
In metaphysics, distinguish realism from anti-realism, and examine universals (Plato's forms versus nominalism). In philosophy of mind, compare dualism (substance and property), physicalism, behaviourism, identity theory and functionalism, and assess the hard problem of consciousness and the knowledge argument (Mary's room).
On freedom and determinism, distinguish hard determinism, compatibilism (freedom as acting on one's own desires without external constraint) and libertarian free will. Examine implications for moral responsibility.
Traps
Don't equate determinism with fatalism-they differ. Don't treat 'justified true belief' as a complete definition without acknowledging Gettier counterexamples. Students often confuse the hard problem (why is there subjective experience?) with the easy problems of cognition.
Worked example and rule of thumb
Suppose a student claims 'I know it because I believe it strongly.' This confuses belief with justification. Ask three questions: Is it true? Is it justified (and how)? Is the justification immune to luck? If luck plays a role, it resembles a Gettier case. Rule of thumb: separate the truth condition, the belief condition and the justification condition before judging any knowledge claim.