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Azerbaijan Bar Advocate Qualification study materials
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Azerbaijan Bar Advocate Qualification practice questions

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Question 1Constitutional Law

Under the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan, which body is the highest source of state power exercised directly by the people through elections and referenda?

  1. The Constitutional Court
  2. The President of the Republic
  3. The people of Azerbaijan Correct answer.
  4. The National Assembly (Milli Majlis)

Explanation

The Constitution establishes that state power in Azerbaijan belongs to the people, who exercise it directly through elections and referenda and through representative bodies. The Milli Majlis, the President and the courts are organs through which power is exercised, not its source.

Question 2Constitutional Law

According to the Constitution of Azerbaijan, the legislative power in the Republic is exercised by which body?

  1. The Cabinet of Ministers
  2. The Constitutional Court
  3. The Milli Majlis Correct answer.
  4. The President

Explanation

The Constitution assigns legislative power to the Milli Majlis, the unicameral national parliament. The Cabinet exercises executive power, and the courts exercise judicial power.

Question 3Constitutional Law

What is the standard term of office of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan under the Constitution?

  1. Six years
  2. Five years
  3. Four years
  4. Seven years Correct answer.

Explanation

The Constitution provides that the President of Azerbaijan is elected for a seven-year term. Earlier constitutional arrangements used a five-year term, but the current text specifies seven years.

Question 4Constitutional Law

Which body has the authority under the Constitution of Azerbaijan to adopt decisions on the conformity of laws and other normative acts with the Constitution?

  1. The Constitutional Court Correct answer.
  2. The Milli Majlis
  3. The Supreme Court
  4. The Prosecutor General's Office

Explanation

Constitutional review of normative acts is entrusted to the Constitutional Court of Azerbaijan. Ordinary courts and the legislature do not have the power to annul legislation on constitutional grounds.

Question 5Constitutional Law

The Constitution of Azerbaijan declares the state to be which form of government?

  1. A theocratic republic
  2. A federal parliamentary monarchy
  3. A confederation of autonomous regions
  4. A democratic, secular, unitary republic Correct answer.

Explanation

The Constitution defines Azerbaijan as a democratic, secular, unitary republic with a presidential form of government. Sovereignty is indivisible and the state is not structured federally.

Question 6Constitutional Law

Which right is expressly guaranteed by the Constitution of Azerbaijan as a right that may not be restricted even in a state of emergency?

  1. The right to freedom of movement
  2. Freedom of assembly
  3. The right not to be subjected to torture Correct answer.
  4. The right to strike

Explanation

The prohibition of torture and inhuman or degrading treatment is among the absolute guarantees that cannot be derogated from, even during emergencies. Other listed rights may be lawfully restricted under specified conditions.

Question 7Constitutional Law

A citizen wishes to challenge the constitutionality of a provision of a law that was applied in her court case. Through which mechanism can an ordinary court in Azerbaijan refer the matter to the Constitutional Court?

  1. By a direct appeal filed by the citizen with the Constitutional Court
  2. By a complaint to the Prosecutor General
  3. By a petition to the Milli Majlis
  4. By an inquiry of the court requesting interpretation or review of the norm Correct answer.

Explanation

Ordinary courts may submit an inquiry to the Constitutional Court regarding the constitutionality of a normative act applicable in a pending case. Individual citizens do not have direct access by way of constitutional complaint in this system.

Question 8Constitutional Law

Which body elects judges of the Constitutional Court of Azerbaijan?

  1. The Judicial-Legal Council
  2. The Milli Majlis on the proposal of the President Correct answer.
  3. The Supreme Court plenum
  4. The President alone

Explanation

Judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the Milli Majlis upon the proposal of the President. This reflects a shared appointment procedure between the executive and the legislature.

Question 9Constitutional Law

The Constitution of Azerbaijan may be amended by which procedure?

  1. By a simple majority vote of the Cabinet
  2. By a decision of the Constitutional Court
  3. By presidential decree
  4. By a referendum or by a qualified majority in the Milli Majlis Correct answer.

Explanation

Amendments to the Constitution are adopted by referendum or, where the Constitution so allows, by a qualified majority in the Milli Majlis. Ordinary legislation procedures are insufficient for constitutional amendment.

Question 10Constitutional Law

A law restricts a constitutional right. Under the Constitution of Azerbaijan, which requirement must such a restriction satisfy to be valid?

  1. It must be adopted unanimously by the Milli Majlis
  2. It must be prescribed by law and pursue a legitimate aim proportionately Correct answer.
  3. It must be approved by the Constitutional Court in advance
  4. It must be confirmed by a national referendum

Explanation

Rights may be restricted only by law, for purposes recognised in the Constitution, and to the extent necessary in a democratic society. The proportionality requirement governs the extent of any limitation.

Question 11Constitutional Law

Which of the following best describes the principle of secularism as established in the Constitution of Azerbaijan?

  1. Religion is entirely excluded from public life
  2. Religious organisations are funded by the state budget
  3. The state is separated from religion and all religions are equal before the law Correct answer.
  4. One religion is officially recognised as the state religion

Explanation

Secularism means the state does not establish an official religion and treats religious associations equally before the law. It does not amount to hostility toward religion or state funding of religious bodies.

Question 12Constitutional Law

The Constitution of Azerbaijan guarantees the right to appeal to which international body for the protection of human rights after domestic remedies are exhausted?

  1. The European Court of Human Rights Correct answer.
  2. The UN Security Council
  3. The OSCE Minsk Group
  4. The International Court of Justice

Explanation

Where domestic remedies have been exhausted, individuals may apply to international human rights bodies, including the European Court of Human Rights, in accordance with treaty commitments. The other listed bodies do not hear individual human rights petitions.

Question 13Constitutional Law

A person is detained by police. Which constitutional guarantee applies to judicial review of the lawfulness of the detention?

  1. Only the prosecutor may review the detention
  2. The detainee must be brought before a court within the period set by law to review the detention Correct answer.
  3. The detainee may be held for an unlimited period without judicial review
  4. The detainee must be released automatically after 48 hours without exception

Explanation

The Constitution guarantees that a person detained must be brought before a court within the time prescribed by law so that the lawfulness of detention is reviewed. Judicial control is the safeguard against arbitrary deprivation of liberty.

Question 14Constitutional Law

Which body exercises the right to initiate a referendum on constitutional amendments in Azerbaijan?

  1. The Constitutional Court
  2. The Milli Majlis or the President, as provided by the Constitution Correct answer.
  3. Any group of 1,000 citizens
  4. The Cabinet of Ministers

Explanation

The Constitution allocates the power to call a referendum on constitutional amendments to the Milli Majlis or the President in the cases it specifies. Private groups of citizens do not hold this initiative.

Question 15Constitutional Law

The Constitution of Azerbaijan provides that human rights and freedoms are the highest value. Which statement best captures the relationship between the state and these rights?

  1. Rights exist only where legislation expressly provides for them
  2. Rights apply only to citizens and never to foreigners
  3. Rights are granted by the state and may be withdrawn at will
  4. The state recognises and guarantees rights that flow from the Constitution and international commitments Correct answer.

Explanation

The Constitution treats fundamental rights as recognised and guaranteed, not as discretionary grants of the state. Many rights are secured to everyone, not only to citizens, and international commitments reinforce them.

Question 16Constitutional Law

Which of the following is a duty expressly imposed on citizens by the Constitution of Azerbaijan?

  1. To serve in a public office for one year
  2. To join a political party
  3. To pay lawfully established taxes Correct answer.
  4. To reside permanently within the country

Explanation

The Constitution lists duties of citizens, including payment of taxes and other state duties established by law. Party membership and permanent residence are not constitutional obligations.

Question 17Constitutional Law

An act of the President is alleged to conflict with the Constitution. Which body is competent to resolve this question?

  1. The Constitutional Court Correct answer.
  2. The Cabinet of Ministers
  3. The Supreme Court
  4. The Milli Majlis by a simple majority

Explanation

The Constitutional Court resolves disputes concerning the conformity of presidential acts with the Constitution. The legislature and ordinary courts do not have jurisdiction to annul presidential acts on constitutional grounds.

Question 18Constitutional Law

Which statement correctly reflects the constitutional status of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic within Azerbaijan?

  1. It is an ordinary administrative district without legislative organs
  2. It is an autonomous republic whose status is defined by the Constitution and its own constitution Correct answer.
  3. It is a federal subject with a right of secession
  4. It is an independent state in confederation with Azerbaijan

Explanation

Nakhchivan is an autonomous republic within Azerbaijan; its constitution must conform to the national Constitution, and it has its own representative organs. It is not independent and has no right of secession.

Question 19Constitutional Law

A constitutional provision conflicts with a ratified international treaty to which Azerbaijan is a party. How is this conflict resolved under the Constitution?

  1. The treaty always prevails over the Constitution
  2. The treaty is automatically void in all respects
  3. The Constitution prevails, and the treaty provision cannot be applied to the extent of the conflict Correct answer.
  4. The conflict is resolved by the Cabinet of Ministers

Explanation

The Constitution stands at the apex of the legal order; a treaty provision that conflicts with it cannot be applied to that extent. The treaty is not automatically void as a whole, and the executive cannot resolve such conflicts.

Question 20Constitutional Law

Which statement best describes the constitutional principle governing the independence of the judiciary in Azerbaijan?

  1. Judges serve at the pleasure of the President
  2. Judges must follow instructions from the Prosecutor General
  3. Judges are subordinate to the Minister of Justice in deciding cases
  4. Judges are independent and subject only to the Constitution and the law Correct answer.

Explanation

Judicial independence means judges decide cases solely on the basis of the Constitution and law, free from external instruction. Subordination to ministers or prosecutors would undermine this guarantee.

Question 21Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Under the Civil Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan, at what age does a person acquire full civil legal capacity (delictual capacity) by default?

  1. At the age of 14
  2. At the age of 18 Correct answer.
  3. Upon marriage regardless of age
  4. At the age of 16

Explanation

Full civil legal capacity is generally acquired on reaching the age of majority, which is 18. Minors between 14 and 18 have partial capacity, and marriage before 18 may confer full capacity only in the cases provided by law.

Question 22Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is classified as immovable property (real estate) under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. A registered mortgage claim
  2. A share in a limited liability company
  3. A plot of land and everything firmly attached to it Correct answer.
  4. A bank deposit certificate

Explanation

Immovable things are land, subsoil, and objects firmly connected to the land that cannot be moved without disproportionate damage. Rights and securities, though registrable, are movable in nature.

Question 23Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A written contract between two merchants omits the price term but specifies the goods and quantity. What is the general consequence under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. The contract is treated as a gift
  2. The contract is void for uncertainty of price
  3. The contract is unenforceable until a price is agreed in writing
  4. The contract is concluded and the price is the market price at the time of performance Correct answer.

Explanation

Where a compensated contract does not fix the price and cannot be determined from its terms, performance is compensated at the price normally charged for comparable goods at the time and place of performance. Absence of a price term does not by itself invalidate the contract.

Question 24Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A minor aged 15 concludes, without parental consent, a contract to purchase an expensive watch. How is such a transaction generally treated?

  1. It is valid because minors may make small everyday purchases
  2. It is fully valid and binding on the minor without any consent
  3. It is voidable at the request of the minor's legal representatives Correct answer.
  4. It is void from the outset and cannot be validated

Explanation

Minors between 14 and 18 may make transactions only with the written consent of their legal representatives; transactions requiring consent that are made without it are voidable at the request of those representatives. Small household transactions are a separate category that minors may conclude independently.

Question 25Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which form is required for a contract for the sale of immovable property under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. Notarization is the sole mandatory requirement in all cases
  2. Written form with state registration of the transfer of rights Correct answer.
  3. Oral agreement is sufficient if the price is paid
  4. Simple written form only

Explanation

Transactions with immovable property must be in writing, and the transfer of rights is subject to state registration. Failure to register the transfer means the right does not arise for third parties.

Question 26Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is a valid ground for declaring a transaction invalid under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. The parties chose a foreign currency for payment
  2. The transaction was concluded at a price higher than market value
  3. The transaction was concluded to a purpose contrary to the foundations of law and order Correct answer.
  4. One party later regretted the bargain

Explanation

A transaction whose purpose is knowingly contrary to the foundations of law and order is void as an anti-social transaction. Mere price imbalance, regret, or currency choice does not invalidate a transaction.

Question 27Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A transaction concluded under the influence of a material mistake about the identity of the subject matter is generally characterized as:

  1. Void automatically
  2. Voidable at the request of the mistaken party Correct answer.
  3. Valid and unassailable
  4. Valid only if both parties confirm it in writing

Explanation

A transaction concluded under a material mistake may be invalidated at the request of the party acting under the mistake. Materiality concerns the nature of the transaction or the identity of its subject matter.

Question 28Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which limitation period applies to a general civil claim under Azerbaijani civil law, unless a special period is provided?

  1. One year
  2. Three years Correct answer.
  3. Ten years
  4. Five years

Explanation

The general limitation period for civil claims is three years. Special shorter or longer periods apply to particular categories of claims.

Question 29Civil Law and Civil Procedure

When does the limitation period generally begin to run for a claim arising from a breach of contract?

  1. From the date the creditor learned or should have learned of the violation of the right Correct answer.
  2. From the date the contract was signed
  3. From the date of the first court hearing
  4. From the date the defendant became insolvent

Explanation

The limitation period runs from the day the person learned or should have learned that their right was violated. This subjective starting point is the general rule for contractual and delictual claims.

Question 30Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is a real right (right in rem) recognized under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. A right under a commission agreement
  2. A right under a loan agreement
  3. A right to receive a dividend
  4. A right of ownership Correct answer.

Explanation

Ownership is the principal real right, giving the owner possession, use, and disposal of property. Contractual claims such as loans or commissions are obligations, not real rights.

Question 31Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Two co-owners hold an apartment in shared ownership without defining their shares. What is the presumption under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. The shares are equal Correct answer.
  2. The property is treated as joint ownership of a married couple only
  3. The shares are determined by whoever paid more
  4. The first registered owner holds the entire interest

Explanation

Where shares in common ownership are not defined by law or agreement, the shares are presumed equal. Contributions that differ may be proven to rebut the presumption in appropriate cases.

Question 32Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following best describes a contractual penalty (forfeit) under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. An interest rate capped by the central bank
  2. A sum fixed by law or agreement payable upon breach of an obligation Correct answer.
  3. A refundable deposit held by a notary
  4. A form of state duty

Explanation

A penalty is a sum of money determined by law or by agreement that the debtor must pay the creditor upon non-performance or improper performance. It secures performance and compensates for breach.

Question 33Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A debtor fails to perform a monetary obligation and the creditor seeks both the principal and statutory interest for the use of money. What is the general position on interest for the use of another's money?

  1. Interest is payable only if the contract expressly names a rate
  2. Interest accrues at the statutory rate where no rate is agreed Correct answer.
  3. Interest replaces the principal obligation
  4. Interest is never available in addition to the principal

Explanation

Where money is wrongfully withheld, interest is generally payable at the statutory rate if the parties have not agreed another rate. It is an accessory to the principal claim.

Question 34Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following constitutes proper performance of an obligation?

  1. Performance in full to the creditor within the agreed time and place Correct answer.
  2. Performance conditioned on a new demand by the creditor
  3. Partial performance accepted unilaterally by the debtor
  4. Performance to a third party who has no authority to receive it

Explanation

Performance must be rendered to the creditor (or an authorized person), in full, at the agreed time and place. Performance to an unauthorized third party does not discharge the debtor.

Question 35Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A creditor refuses to accept a valid tender of performance. What remedy is generally available to the debtor?

  1. The debtor may unilaterally cancel the contract without consequence
  2. The debtor forfeits any claim for costs
  3. The debtor may deposit the performance with a notary or other authorized body Correct answer.
  4. The debtor must continue to hold the goods indefinitely

Explanation

Where the creditor refuses to accept performance, the debtor may discharge the obligation by depositing the money or goods with a notary or another body designated by law. This protects the debtor from default.

Question 36Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is required for a valid assignment of a claim (cession)?

  1. Consent of the debtor in all cases
  2. A written agreement between the assignor and assignee, with notice to the debtor Correct answer.
  3. Approval of the court in all cases
  4. Registration with the tax authority

Explanation

Cession is effected by agreement between the original and new creditor; the debtor must be notified so that performance to the original creditor is no longer effective. Debtor consent is required only where the obligation is strictly personal.

Question 37Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following obligations is generally terminated by impossibility of performance?

  1. A monetary debt
  2. An obligation to pay interest
  3. An obligation to deliver a specific unique painting destroyed by fire without fault of the debtor Correct answer.
  4. An obligation to pay a penalty

Explanation

Impossibility of performance terminates an obligation where the object is a specific unique thing destroyed without fault of the debtor. Monetary obligations are generally not extinguished by impossibility because money is fungible.

Question 38Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is a valid ground for termination of a contract by unilateral demand (repudiation)?

  1. A change in market prices
  2. A material breach of the contract by the other party Correct answer.
  3. The unilateral wish of one party without any breach
  4. The appointment of a new director of a party

Explanation

A material breach by the counterparty entitles the innocent party to terminate the contract. Mere market changes, subjective wishes, or internal corporate changes are not grounds for unilateral termination.

Question 39Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following best describes the legal nature of a preliminary contract (agreement to conclude a future contract)?

  1. It requires notarization in all cases
  2. It is a non-binding letter of intent
  3. It obliges the parties to conclude the main contract on the terms agreed Correct answer.
  4. It transfers ownership of the subject matter immediately

Explanation

A preliminary contract binds the parties to enter into the main contract within the agreed term and on the agreed terms. Failure to do so may give rise to a claim for conclusion of the main contract or damages.

Question 40Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A person who has acquired property in good faith from a person not entitled to alienate it may, as a general rule, acquire ownership if:

  1. The acquirer has possessed the property for one month
  2. The acquirer acted in good faith regardless of whether consideration was paid
  3. The property was acquired for value, in good faith, and the property was not lost or stolen from the owner Correct answer.
  4. The property was acquired for value and the true owner did not know of the transfer

Explanation

Good-faith acquisition for value from an unauthorized alienator can confer ownership where the property was not lost or stolen from the owner or otherwise left the owner's control against their will. Both good faith and valuable consideration are required.

Question 41Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is a characteristic of a public contract (a contract concluded by a commercial organization engaged in a public activity)?

  1. It is always concluded in notarial form
  2. The organization must conclude it with any person who requests it on the same terms offered to others Correct answer.
  3. The organization may freely refuse to conclude it with any person
  4. It may only be concluded with state bodies

Explanation

A public contract must be concluded by a commercial organization carrying out a public activity with any person who applies, on terms that are the same for all consumers. Refusal is permitted only where the organization lacks the capacity to perform.

Question 42Civil Law and Civil Procedure

In civil proceedings, which court generally hears a first-instance civil dispute between two private individuals of modest value?

  1. The Economic Court as the sole first instance for all civil claims
  2. The Supreme Court of Azerbaijan
  3. The Constitutional Court
  4. The district (rayon) court Correct answer.

Explanation

District (rayon) courts are the general first-instance courts for civil disputes. The Supreme Court reviews decisions on cassation, and the Constitutional Court addresses constitutional matters rather than ordinary civil disputes.

Question 43Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A plaintiff files a civil claim. Within what period must the court generally decide whether to accept the statement of claim?

  1. Within five days of receipt Correct answer.
  2. Within thirty days of receipt
  3. No time limit applies
  4. Within ten days of the first hearing

Explanation

The court must decide on acceptance of the statement of claim within a short statutory period after receipt, generally five days, and issue a ruling on acceptance or refusal. This ensures prompt access to justice.

Question 44Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following is a ground on which a court may leave a statement of claim without movement (leave it unprocessed)?

  1. The defendant has already retained a lawyer
  2. The claim is manifestly unfounded on the merits
  3. The statement does not comply with formal requirements such as missing documents or payment of state duty Correct answer.
  4. The plaintiff resides in another city

Explanation

If the statement of claim fails to meet formal requirements, the court may leave it without movement and set a period for the defects to be cured. Merits are not assessed at this stage.

Question 45Civil Law and Civil Procedure

What is the effect of a court's failure to comply with a mandatory rule on the composition of the court when deciding a civil case?

  1. It is a harmless irregularity if the outcome is correct
  2. It is a ground for annulment of the judgment on appeal/cassation Correct answer.
  3. It is cured by the parties' consent after the judgment
  4. It converts the judgment into an arbitration award

Explanation

Unlawful composition of the court is a procedural violation that constitutes a ground for setting aside the judgment. Such fundamental defects cannot be cured by the correct outcome or later consent.

Question 46Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A legal entity and a natural person conclude a written contract. Which requirement is essential for the parties to be bound by the written form of the transaction?

  1. The contract must be approved by a state authority before it takes effect
  2. The transaction must express the will of each party and be signed by them or their authorized representatives Correct answer.
  3. The document must be notarized in every case
  4. The contract must be registered with a notary within three days of signing

Explanation

A written transaction is validly concluded when it reflects the agreed will of the parties and is signed by them or by duly authorized representatives. Notarization or state registration is required only in the cases expressly provided by law. Absent such a statutory requirement, signature alone satisfies the written form.

Question 47Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A landlord and tenant sign a lease for one year. After six months the landlord sells the building to a buyer who wishes to occupy it personally and demands that the tenant vacate immediately. Which statement best reflects the tenant's position under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. The tenant may stay only if the original lease was notarized
  2. The sale automatically terminates the lease because the new owner is not a party to it
  3. The lease survives the transfer of ownership, and the buyer steps into the landlord's position Correct answer.
  4. The tenant must vacate but may claim only the unused rent from the original landlord

Explanation

A change of owner does not by itself terminate an existing lease; the new owner acquires the rights and duties of the landlord. This follows from the principle that the transfer of ownership does not affect obligations already binding the property. The tenant therefore keeps the lease on its original terms against the buyer.

Question 48Civil Law and Civil Procedure

Which of the following best describes the legal position of a person who possesses property without any legal basis but in the good-faith belief that he is entitled to it?

  1. He must transfer the property to the state rather than to the owner
  2. He is an unlawful possessor but may in good faith claim reimbursement of necessary expenses and retain fruits he has already collected Correct answer.
  3. He becomes the owner automatically after one year of possession
  4. He owes the owner all fruits and expenses without any right of reimbursement

Explanation

Good faith affects the consequences of unlawful possession rather than creating ownership. A good-faith possessor may generally claim reimbursement of necessary expenses and keep fruits gathered before he learned of the defect in his title. He must still return the property itself to the entitled owner.

Question 49Civil Law and Civil Procedure

A creditor wishes to secure a loan by taking a mortgage over the debtor's apartment. Which statement correctly describes the mortgage under Azerbaijani civil law?

  1. The mortgage is valid only if the creditor physically takes possession of the apartment
  2. The mortgage transfers ownership of the apartment to the creditor until repayment
  3. The mortgage extinguishes the debtor's right to sell the apartment in any circumstances
  4. The mortgage gives the creditor a right to satisfy the claim from the value of the encumbered property in priority over other creditors Correct answer.

Explanation

A mortgage is a security right over immovable property that entitles the creditor, on default, to satisfaction from the property's value ahead of unsecured creditors. Ownership remains with the debtor, and possession is not transferred to the creditor. The debtor's power to dispose of the property is restricted but not wholly eliminated.

Question 50Civil Law and Civil Procedure

In a civil case the court of first instance issues a judgment. The defendant believes the court wrongly assessed the evidence. Which avenue best matches the ordinary appellate review of a judgment that has not yet entered into legal force?

  1. A fresh claim before the same court of first instance
  2. An appeal to the appellate court, which reviews the case on the law and the facts Correct answer.
  3. A request for supervisory review by the prosecutor's office
  4. Cassation to the Supreme Court, because all judgments are reviewed there first

Explanation

A judgment that has not entered into legal force is normally challenged by way of appeal to the appellate court. Appellate review examines both the factual findings and the application of the law. Cassation is a later stage available after the appellate decision, and supervisory review is exceptional.