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BCS Written History practice questions

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Question 1Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Indus Valley site is best known for its Great Bath, a large rectangular water tank made watertight with bitumen?

  1. Kalibangan
  2. Mohenjo-daro Correct answer.
  3. Harappa
  4. Lothal

Explanation

The Great Bath is the signature structure of Mohenjo-daro, built on the citadel mound with a bitumen-lined basin and steps at either end. It is generally interpreted as a site for ritual purification rather than ordinary bathing or irrigation.

Question 2Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Indus script remains undeciphered. Which statement best describes its surviving corpus?

  1. It survives in long royal edicts carved on rock faces
  2. It survives mainly on short seal inscriptions, often with animal motifs Correct answer.
  3. It survives only on copper coins of the Mauryan period
  4. It survives chiefly on palm-leaf manuscripts in monasteries

Explanation

Indus writing is preserved overwhelmingly on small seals, amulets and pottery, with inscriptions typically only a few signs long. This brevity and the absence of a bilingual key are the main obstacles to decipherment.

Question 3Ancient and Medieval Indian History

In the Vedic corpus, which text type consists of ritual formulas and mantras recited during sacrifices?

  1. Samhita Correct answer.
  2. Upanishad
  3. Aranyaka
  4. Brahmana

Explanation

The Samhita is the core collection of hymns and sacrificial formulas, such as the Rigveda Samhita. Later layers-Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads-comment on ritual, its symbolism and its inner meaning.

Question 4Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which river is most closely associated with the early Vedic settlements described as the Sapta Sindhu region?

  1. Ganga
  2. Narmada
  3. Sindhu (Indus) Correct answer.
  4. Yamuna

Explanation

Sapta Sindhu means 'land of seven rivers' and refers to the Indus and its Punjab tributaries, the core zone of Rigvedic geography. The Ganga is mentioned rarely and late in the Rigveda, marking a later eastward shift.

Question 5Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Gautama Buddha is said to have delivered his first sermon, setting the Wheel of Dharma in motion, at which site?

  1. Bodh Gaya
  2. Sarnath Correct answer.
  3. Lumbini
  4. Kushinagar

Explanation

At Sarnath, near Varanasi, the Buddha preached the Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta to his five former companions. The site became a major monastic centre and is marked by an Ashokan pillar and stupa.

Question 6Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Mauryan ruler is credited with the Kalinga war and the subsequent policy of dhamma recorded in rock and pillar edicts?

  1. Dasharatha
  2. Ashoka Correct answer.
  3. Bindusara
  4. Chandragupta Maurya

Explanation

Ashoka's thirteenth major rock edict describes remorse after the Kalinga campaign and announces a turn toward dhamma, or moral governance. His edicts were inscribed in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic across the empire.

Question 7Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Gupta period is often described as a classical age of Sanskrit literature. Which poet-dramatist is traditionally associated with the Gupta court?

  1. Kalidasa Correct answer.
  2. Bharavi
  3. Banabhatta
  4. Jayadeva

Explanation

Kalidasa, author of Abhijnanashakuntala and Meghaduta, is conventionally linked with the Gupta court, especially that of Chandragupta II. Banabhatta, Bharavi and Jayadeva belong to later or different contexts.

Question 8Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Chola ruler is famous for the naval expedition against Srivijaya recorded in the Leiden grant?

  1. Kulottunga I
  2. Vijayalaya
  3. Rajaraja I
  4. Rajendra I Correct answer.

Explanation

Rajendra I's overseas campaign against Srivijaya is attested by the Leiden copper-plate grant and by inscriptions at Thanjavur. The expedition is one of the rare documented South Asian maritime campaigns of the medieval period.

Question 9Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A student reads that a Gupta ruler took the title 'Vikramaditya' and issued silver coins imitating western Satrap types. Which ruler best fits this description?

  1. Samudragupta
  2. Kumaragupta I
  3. Skandagupta
  4. Chandragupta II Correct answer.

Explanation

Chandragupta II is conventionally identified with the title Vikramaditya and is noted for conquering the western Satraps and issuing silver coinage of Satrap style. The identification rests on coins, inscriptions and later literary tradition.

Question 10Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta was composed by a court poet. Who was he?

  1. Vasula
  2. Yajnavalkya
  3. Harishena Correct answer.
  4. Ravikirti

Explanation

Harishena, a high official, composed the eulogy on the Allahabad pillar, listing Samudragupta's conquests and tributary rulers. The text is a key source for reconstructing early Gupta political geography.

Question 11Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Harappan site provides the clearest evidence of a tidal dockyard connected to the sea?

  1. Banawali
  2. Dholavira
  3. Lothal Correct answer.
  4. Rakhigarhi

Explanation

Lothal in Gujarat has a large basin interpreted as a dockyard with an inlet channel and sluice arrangements, linking it to Gulf trade. Its bead workshop and seal finds reinforce the picture of a port town.

Question 12Ancient and Medieval Indian History

In Ashokan inscriptions, the term 'dhamma' is used in a broad sense. Which description best captures its use in the edicts?

  1. A form of land grant to Brahmin beneficiaries
  2. A tax levied on conquered territories
  3. A title claimed by Mauryan provincial governors
  4. A code of moral conduct emphasising respect, non-injury and welfare Correct answer.

Explanation

In the edicts, dhamma denotes moral practice: obedience to parents, respect for teachers and ascetics, non-injury and welfare work such as wells and rest houses. It is presented as a governing ethic rather than a sectarian creed.

Question 13Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Arthashastra is traditionally attributed to Kautilya. Which subject matter does this treatise primarily address?

  1. Astronomy and calendrical calculation
  2. Buddhist monastic discipline
  3. Grammar and linguistic analysis
  4. Statecraft, economy and administration Correct answer.

Explanation

The Arthashastra is a manual of statecraft covering taxation, espionage, diplomacy, war and the duties of kings. It is a key source for Mauryan political economy, though its date and layers remain debated.

Question 14Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A ruler of the Satavahana dynasty is credited with defeating the western Satrap Nahapana and restriking his coins. Which ruler is this?

  1. Gautamiputra Satakarni Correct answer.
  2. Yajna Sri Satakarni
  3. Hala
  4. Simuka

Explanation

Gautamiputra Satakarni's achievements are praised in the Nasik prashasti of his mother Gautami Balashri, which claims victory over Nahapana and the recovery of Satavahana territory. Restruck coins bearing Nahapana's traces support the claim.

Question 15Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Sangam corpus of Tamil literature is conventionally dated to which broad period?

  1. The eighth to tenth centuries CE
  2. The sixteenth to seventeenth centuries CE
  3. The thirteenth to fourteenth centuries CE
  4. Roughly the last centuries BCE to the early centuries CE Correct answer.

Explanation

Sangam poetry, comprising anthologies of love and heroic verse, is generally placed between roughly the third century BCE and the third century CE. Its references to Chola, Pandya and Chera polities anchor its historical value.

Question 16Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Chinese pilgrim visited India in the seventh century and left an account of Harsha's court and Buddhist monasteries?

  1. Yijing
  2. Zhang Qian
  3. Xuanzang Correct answer.
  4. Faxian

Explanation

Xuanzang travelled through India around 630-645 CE and recorded his observations in the Si-Yu-Ki, a major source for Harsha's reign and for Buddhist institutional life. Faxian had travelled earlier, in the fifth century.

Question 17Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Harshavardhana's reign is chiefly reconstructed from three sources. Which combination is most appropriate?

  1. The Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Puranas
  2. Banabhatta's Harshacharita, Xuanzang's travel record, and his own inscriptions Correct answer.
  3. The Rajatarangini, the Ain-i-Akbari, and Sangam poetry
  4. The Arthashastra, the Periplus, and Ashokan edicts

Explanation

Banabhatta's biography supplies court detail, Xuanzang's account gives an outside view of Harsha's domains, and inscriptions such as the Aihole pillar record his relations with Pulakeshin II. Combining these genres allows cross-checking of claims.

Question 18Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The tripartite struggle of the early medieval period refers to rivalry among three powers for control of Kanauj. Which three were they?

  1. Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras
  2. Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas Correct answer.
  3. Chalukyas of Badami, Pallavas and Gangas
  4. Paramaras, Chahamanas and Chalukyas of Kalyani

Explanation

The Gurjara-Pratiharas of north India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan contended for the imperial centre at Kanauj from the eighth to the tenth centuries. Control of Kanauj carried prestige as well as strategic and commercial advantage.

Question 19Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur, completed around 1010 CE, was commissioned by which ruler?

  1. Rajendra I
  2. Rajaraja I Correct answer.
  3. Aditya I
  4. Parantaka I

Explanation

Rajaraja I built the Brihadeshvara, also called Rajarajeshvara, as a monument of Chola imperial power and endowed it with land and revenue. Its scale, Dravida vimana and Shaiva sculpture mark a high point of Chola architecture.

Question 20Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A novice asks which feature most clearly distinguishes the Pallava style of Mahabalipuram from earlier Deccan rock-cut work. Which answer is most defensible?

  1. Extensive use of true arches and vaulting
  2. Marble facing imported from the Mediterranean
  3. Polychrome tilework on brick towers
  4. Monolithic rock-cut rathas and large open-air relief panels Correct answer.

Explanation

Mahabalipuram is celebrated for monolithic rathas carved from single boulders and for open-air reliefs such as the Descent of the Ganga panel. These experiment with structural forms later realised in Pallava masonry temples.

Question 21Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The term 'brahmadeya' in early medieval south Indian inscriptions denotes which kind of holding?

  1. Land reserved for royal hunting
  2. Land granted to Brahmins, usually tax-free Correct answer.
  3. Land assigned to military commanders
  4. Land held by temple dancing girls

Explanation

Brahmadeya grants transferred revenue rights over land to Brahmin donees, often with the village as the unit. Such grants reshaped agrarian organisation and are extensively recorded in Chola-period copper plates.

Question 22Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which philosophical school is associated with the Brahma Sutras and the commentaries of Shankara?

  1. Advaita Vedanta Correct answer.
  2. Charvaka
  3. Nyaya
  4. Samkhya

Explanation

Shankara's commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita established Advaita Vedanta, teaching the non-duality of the individual self and ultimate reality. His monastic foundations spread the school across India.

Question 23Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia reflects the cultural influence of which Indian religious tradition?

  1. Vaishnavism, later partly converted to Buddhist use Correct answer.
  2. Zoroastrianism
  3. Jainism
  4. Sikhism

Explanation

Angkor Wat was founded in the twelfth century as a Vaishnava temple dedicated to Vishnu and later became a Buddhist sanctuary. Its iconography and temple-mountain plan show the transmission of Indian religious and architectural ideas into Southeast Asia.

Question 24Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II is notable in literary history for which reason?

  1. It contains a Sanskrit verse praising the poet's own composition in an early use of a new metre Correct answer.
  2. It is written entirely in the Kharoshthi script
  3. It records the first use of Persian in Indian epigraphy
  4. It is the earliest known Tamil inscription

Explanation

The Aihole prashasti, composed by Ravikirti, ends with a verse in which the poet claims his fame will endure through his own composition. It is often cited as an early self-conscious assertion of poetic authorship in Sanskrit epigraphy.

Question 25Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which statement best explains why the 'Indian feudalism' model for early medieval India has been contested?

  1. The model relies solely on Greek accounts of India
  2. It applies only to the Sangam age in the far south
  3. No inscriptions survive from the early medieval period
  4. Evidence for serfdom and manorial estates comparable to Europe is weak, and land-grant evidence is regionally uneven Correct answer.

Explanation

Critics argue that the feudalism model imports European categories such as serfdom and manorialism that Indian sources do not clearly support. Land grants are important but unevenly distributed in time and region, so generalisation across the subcontinent is risky.

Question 26Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which Indus Valley site is best known for its large public bath or tank, often interpreted as evidence of ritual purification?

  1. Mohenjo-daro Correct answer.
  2. Kalibangan
  3. Harappa
  4. Lothal

Explanation

The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a large, finely built structure with steps leading down into a waterproofed tank, and it is widely interpreted as a place for ritual bathing. Other sites have drains and wells, but none has a comparable public tank of this scale.

Question 27Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Vedic text that contains the famous hymn of creation known as the Nasadiya Sukta is the:

  1. Rigveda Correct answer.
  2. Atharvaveda
  3. Samaveda
  4. Yajurveda

Explanation

The Nasadiya Sukta, which speculates about the origin of the cosmos, belongs to the tenth mandala of the Rigveda. The other Vedas consist largely of liturgical and ritual material derived from or associated with the Rigvedic tradition.

Question 28Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which of the following was a capital of the Mauryan empire and is associated with the lion capital that became India's state emblem?

  1. Taxila
  2. Pataliputra
  3. Sarnath Correct answer.
  4. Sanchi

Explanation

The lion capital now used as the state emblem was found at Sarnath, where Ashoka erected a pillar to mark the Buddha's first sermon. Sarnath was a major Buddhist site rather than the political capital of the Mauryas.

Question 29Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Gupta ruler who is credited with restoring the performance of the ashvamedha sacrifice and issuing coins commemorating it was:

  1. Skandagupta
  2. Chandragupta I
  3. Samudragupta Correct answer.
  4. Chandragupta II

Explanation

Samudragupta issued gold coins showing a horse beside a sacrificial post, and inscriptions praise him as a performer of the ashvamedha. This coin type is a key piece of evidence for the Gupta revival of Vedic sacrifice.

Question 30Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A student reads that a south Indian ruler assumed the title 'Gangaikondachola' after a successful campaign. This title was taken by:

  1. Vikrama Chola
  2. Kulottunga I
  3. Rajendra I Correct answer.
  4. Rajaraja I

Explanation

Rajendra I adopted the title Gangaikondachola, meaning 'Chola who conquered the Ganga', after his expedition to the Ganga valley. He also founded a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram to commemorate the victory.

Question 31Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which of the following best describes the administrative unit called 'bhukti' in early Indian inscriptions?

  1. A district or province Correct answer.
  2. A merchant guild
  3. A military camp
  4. A village assembly

Explanation

In Gupta and later inscriptions, a bhukti is a large territorial division, usually translated as province or district, and is subdivided into vishayas. Village assemblies and guilds are denoted by other terms such as sabha, panchayat or shreni.

Question 32Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Buddhist text that describes the sixteen great states (mahajanapadas) of the sixth century BCE is the:

  1. Anguttara Nikaya Correct answer.
  2. Rajatarangini
  3. Arthashastra
  4. Mahavamsa

Explanation

The Anguttara Nikaya, part of the Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, contains a list of sixteen mahajanapadas. This list is a key source for the political geography of early historic India.

Question 33Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A historian studying the spread of Jainism in western India would find the most direct evidence in the:

  1. Edicts of Ashoka
  2. Allahabad pillar inscription
  3. Kalpasutra manuscripts Correct answer.
  4. Mehrauli iron pillar inscription

Explanation

The Kalpasutra is a Jain text containing biographies of the Tirthankaras, and illustrated manuscripts of it were produced in western India, especially Gujarat. These manuscripts are a direct source for Jain religious culture in that region.

Question 34Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which statement best explains why the term 'Hinduism' is used with caution for the religion of the Vedic period?

  1. The Vedic texts were composed after the Puranas.
  2. The Vedic religion lacked temples and images and centred on sacrifice, while later Hindu traditions developed around temple worship and devotion. Correct answer.
  3. The Vedic religion was identical to Buddhism.
  4. The Vedic people did not worship any gods.

Explanation

Vedic religion was primarily sacrificial and centred on fire rituals performed by priests, without temples or iconic images of deities. Later Hindu traditions, by contrast, emphasize temple worship, images and personal devotion, so applying the modern term 'Hinduism' to the Vedic period can mislead.

Question 35Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The term 'uparika' in Mauryan administration referred to:

  1. A village headman
  2. A frontier commander
  3. A revenue collector
  4. A provincial governor Correct answer.

Explanation

In Ashokan and Mauryan inscriptions, an uparika is a high official in charge of a province or a large district, subordinate to the centre. Village headmen and revenue collectors are denoted by other terms such as gramika and rajukas.

Question 36Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which of the following is the most likely reason that Ashoka's dhamma edicts were written in Prakrit in most of the subcontinent but in Greek and Aramaic in the northwest?

  1. To show respect for the Mauryan capital
  2. To make the message intelligible to local populations and officials Correct answer.
  3. To preserve the secrecy of the message
  4. To comply with Buddhist monastic rules

Explanation

The use of local languages and scripts in the edicts indicates a practical concern to communicate the royal message to diverse populations and officials across the empire. The northwest had Greek and Aramaic-speaking communities, so bilingual or trilingual versions were needed there.

Question 37Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Sangam text that deals with the grammar and poetics of Tamil and is traditionally attributed to Tolkappiyar is the:

  1. Tolkappiyam Correct answer.
  2. Manimekalai
  3. Silappadikaram
  4. Purananuru

Explanation

The Tolkappiyam is the earliest extant Tamil work on grammar and poetics and is traditionally ascribed to Tolkappiyar. The other works named are literary texts: two epics and an anthology of poems.

Question 38Ancient and Medieval Indian History

A scholar argues that the 'Indian feudalism' model is problematic for early medieval India mainly because:

  1. Indian rulers never granted land to Brahmins.
  2. The model is based entirely on Mughal revenue records.
  3. The period saw no land grants at all.
  4. The evidence for serfdom and manorial estates is weak, and land grants did not necessarily produce a uniform decline of trade and towns. Correct answer.

Explanation

The feudalism model, associated with R. S. Sharma and others, has been criticized for assuming a sharp decline in trade and towns and for stretching European categories of serfdom and manor onto Indian evidence. Critics point to continuing trade, urbanism and the varied effects of land grants.

Question 39Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Jataka stories are primarily important to historians of ancient India because they:

  1. Contain the earliest Sanskrit grammar.
  2. Describe the military campaigns of the Cholas.
  3. Record the political history of the Mauryan dynasty in chronological order.
  4. Provide information about social and economic life, often in the form of moral tales. Correct answer.

Explanation

The Jatakas are Buddhist birth stories that illustrate moral lessons and incidentally preserve details about trade, crafts, agriculture and social relations. They are not a chronological political record, but they are valuable for social and economic history.

Question 40Ancient and Medieval Indian History

Which statement best explains why the term 'Gupta classical age' is debated by historians?

  1. The term is debated because the Guptas ruled after the Delhi Sultanate.
  2. The label reflects the high quality of Sanskrit court literature and art, but it overlooks regional diversity and the flourishing of other traditions. Correct answer.
  3. The term is rejected because the Guptas were not Hindus.
  4. The Gupta period produced no literature or art of note.

Explanation

The 'classical age' label highlights achievements in Sanskrit poetry, drama, sculpture and temple architecture under Gupta patronage. Critics argue that it is elitist and north-India centred, and that it obscures the continued vitality of regional, Buddhist and Jain cultural production.

Question 41Mughal and Late Medieval India

Who founded the Mughal Empire in India after the First Battle of Panipat in 1526?

  1. Babur Correct answer.
  2. Sher Shah Suri
  3. Akbar
  4. Humayun

Explanation

Babur, a Timurid prince from Central Asia, defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 and established Mughal rule in northern India. His victory relied on artillery and cavalry tactics that overcame the larger Lodi army.

Question 42Mughal and Late Medieval India

The Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 secured the Mughal throne for which ruler?

  1. Jahangir
  2. Aurangzeb
  3. Shah Jahan
  4. Akbar Correct answer.

Explanation

Akbar's forces under Bairam Khan defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, consolidating Mughal power after Humayun's death. This victory removed the main Sur successor threat and allowed Akbar's long reign to begin securely.

Question 43Mughal and Late Medieval India

Which Mughal emperor is credited with building the Taj Mahal at Agra?

  1. Shah Jahan Correct answer.
  2. Akbar
  3. Humayun
  4. Bahadur Shah I

Explanation

Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, completed in the mid-seventeenth century. It is the most famous monument of Mughal architecture and reflects the empire's peak artistic patronage.

Question 44Mughal and Late Medieval India

The Mansabdari system under the Mughals primarily organized which aspect of the state?

  1. Maritime trade licenses
  2. Military and administrative ranks Correct answer.
  3. Land revenue farming contracts
  4. Religious endowments

Explanation

Mansabdari assigned numerical ranks (zat and sawar) that fixed a noble's status, salary, and obligation to supply troops. It was the backbone of Mughal military and administrative organization rather than a religious or commercial institution.

Question 45Mughal and Late Medieval India

The Battle of Talikota in 1565 resulted in the defeat of which power?

  1. Vijayanagara Correct answer.
  2. The Bahmani Sultanate
  3. The Rajput confederacy
  4. The Marathas

Explanation

A coalition of Deccan sultanates defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota in 1565, leading to the sack of Hampi and the empire's decline. The defeat reshaped the balance of power in southern India in favor of the Deccan sultans.

Question 46Mughal and Late Medieval India

Sher Shah Suri is best remembered for which administrative reform?

  1. Introducing the mansab system
  2. Abolishing the jizya permanently
  3. Standardizing the silver rupiya and revenue measurement Correct answer.
  4. Founding the Din-i Ilahi

Explanation

Sher Shah Suri issued a standardized silver rupiya and developed land measurement and revenue assessment practices that the Mughals later built upon. His short rule left durable fiscal and infrastructural legacies.

Question 47Mughal and Late Medieval India

Akbar's policy of sulh-i kul, often translated as universal peace, meant that the state should do which of the following?

  1. Ban non-Muslim officeholding
  2. Favor one sect over others
  3. Treat subjects of different faiths with toleration Correct answer.
  4. Require conversion of prisoners

Explanation

Sulh-i kul was a principle of imperial toleration under which the Mughal state claimed to treat subjects of different religious communities impartially. It supported Akbar's employment of Rajput and other non-Muslim nobles in high office.

Question 48Mughal and Late Medieval India

The jagir system in Mughal India refers to which arrangement?

  1. Assignment of revenue rights from a territory to a noble Correct answer.
  2. A military garrison stationed at the capital
  3. A guild monopoly over craft production
  4. Tax-free land held by temples

Explanation

A jagir was the assignment of the revenue of a specified area to a mansabdar in lieu of a cash salary. Jagirdars collected revenue but did not own the land, and assignments were frequently transferred.

Question 49Mughal and Late Medieval India

A mansabdar holding a rank with a sawar figure was expected to do which of the following?

  1. Provide a fixed number of warships
  2. Maintain a specified number of cavalry troopers Correct answer.
  3. Fund a set number of mosques
  4. Supply grain to the imperial granaries

Explanation

The sawar component of a mansab specified how many horsemen the holder had to maintain and equip for imperial service. The zat component fixed personal status and salary, while sawar measured actual military obligation.

Question 50Mughal and Late Medieval India

Which Mughal emperor's reign saw the compilation of the Ain-i Akbari, a detailed survey of imperial administration?

  1. Shah Jahan
  2. Akbar Correct answer.
  3. Babur
  4. Aurangzeb

Explanation

The Ain-i Akbari forms part of the Akbarnama compiled by Abul Fazl during Akbar's reign and records revenue, administration, and statistics. It remains a key source for understanding Mughal governance.