Life of the Prophet Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs
The Prophetic Career
Know the chronology: birth c. 570, first revelation at the cave of Hira c. 610, the da'wa in Mecca, the migration (hijra) to Medina in 622 (start of the Islamic calendar), the Constitution of Medina (sahifa), the battles of Badr (624), Uhud (625), and the Trench (Khandaq, 627), the Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628), the conquest of Mecca (630), and the farewell pilgrimage and death in 632. Understand the roles of Khadija, Abu Bakr, Ali, and the Ahl al-Bayt.
The Rashidun
Master the four caliphs and their defining issues: Abu Bakr (632-634) and the ridda wars plus compilation of the Qur'an; Umar (634-644) and the great conquests, the diwan (register), and administrative innovations; Uthman (644-656) and the standardized Qur'anic codex plus the grievances that led to his martyrdom; Ali (656-661) and the First Fitna, the battles of the Camel and Siffin, and the khariji schism.
Traps
A common trap is mixing the order of battles or confusing the hijra date with the birth date. Another is attributing Qur'anic compilation solely to one caliph; distinguish Abu Bakr's initial collection from Uthman's standardization. Do not confuse the ridda (apostasy wars) with the fitna (civil strife).
Rule of Thumb
Anchor every event to a caliph's reign before answering. If an event is administrative or expansionary, it likely belongs to Umar; if it concerns textual standardization, Uthman. Example: the diwan is Umar's innovation for paying stipends, not Uthman's.