Islamic Civilization, Culture, and Institutions
Institutions
Candidates must know the core institutions: the caliphate (succession and legitimacy debates), the shura (consultation), the qadi (judge) and mazalim (grievance courts), the hisba (market supervision by the muhtasib), the waqf (endowment), the madrasa (from the 11th century), and the diwan (bureaucratic register). Understand the shari'a and its sources, and the distinction between fiqh (jurisprudence) and usul al-fiqh (methodology).
Social and Cultural Life
Know the mawali, dhimmi, and slave (mamluk, ghulam) categories, the role of guilds (futuwwa), and urban features such as the suq, hammam, and masjid. Understand the transmission of knowledge through isnad and ijaza, and the adab literary culture.
Traps
A frequent error is equating the muhtasib with the qadi; the former supervises markets and public morals, the latter adjudicates law. Another trap is treating the waqf as state revenue; it is a charitable endowment. Do not conflate fiqh with shari'a; the former is human interpretation.
Rule of Thumb
Ask whether the institution is judicial (qadi, mazalim), administrative (diwan, hisba), or charitable (waqf, madrasa). Example: a question about market weights and public morality points to the muhtasib, not the qadi.