Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning, Observational and Cognitive Learning
Classical conditioning
Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce a conditioned response. Know acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation, discrimination, and higher-order conditioning. The CS must reliably predict the UCS; contingency and contiguity matter.
Operant conditioning
Thorndike's law of effect and Skinner's work established that consequences shape behaviour. Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases it. Positive means adding a stimulus, negative means removing one. Schedules: fixed and variable ratio and interval; variable ratio produces highest resistance to extinction, fixed interval produces scalloped responding. Shaping, chaining, and successive approximation are used to build complex behaviour. Extinction, discrimination, and generalisation apply here too.
Observational and cognitive learning
Bandura's social learning theory: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation; modelling and vicarious reinforcement. Latent learning (Tolman) and insight learning (Kohler) show learning without immediate reinforcement. Cognitive maps and learned helplessness are also relevant.
Traps and rule of thumb
A frequent trap is calling negative reinforcement punishment; negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus and increases behaviour. Another is mislabelling variable ratio as variable interval. Rule of thumb: ask whether the behaviour increases (reinforcement) or decreases (punishment), then whether something is added or removed.