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BCS Written Sociology study materials
BCS Written Sociology study resources

BCS Written Sociology practice questions

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Question 1Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which thinker is most closely associated with coining the term "sociology" and first proposing it as a distinct science of society?

  1. Karl Marx
  2. Auguste Comte Correct answer.
  3. Herbert Spencer
  4. Max Weber

Explanation

Comte introduced the word sociology in the 1830s to name a positive science of society that would study social phenomena with the same rigour as the natural sciences. He also framed the discipline around social statics and social dynamics, giving it an early programmatic shape.

Question 2Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

The sociological perspective that treats personal troubles as connected to broader public issues is best described as:

  1. the comparative method
  2. the positivist programme
  3. the sociological imagination Correct answer.
  4. the ethnographic method

Explanation

C. Wright Mills described the sociological imagination as the capacity to see the link between biography and history, converting private troubles into public issues. It is a way of framing problems rather than a specific research technique.

Question 3Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

According to the common textbook distinction, which pairing correctly separates the two broad levels of sociological analysis?

  1. Microsociology studies statistics while macrosociology studies interviews
  2. Microsociology studies institutions while macrosociology studies small groups
  3. Microsociology studies global systems while macrosociology studies families
  4. Microsociology studies face-to-face interaction while macrosociology studies large-scale structures Correct answer.

Explanation

The micro-macro distinction concerns the scale and focus of analysis, with microsociology examining everyday interaction and macrosociology examining institutions, stratification and whole societies. Methods such as surveys or interviews can serve either level, so the split is not about techniques.

Question 4Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Durkheim's argument that social facts must be treated as things means that sociologists should:

  1. interpret actors' subjective meanings above all else
  2. treat society as a contract between rational individuals
  3. study social phenomena as external constraints with their own causal power Correct answer.
  4. reduce social life to the psychological motives of individuals

Explanation

Durkheim held that social facts are external to individuals, exercise constraint over them and cannot be explained by individual psychology alone. Treating them as things signals that they should be studied empirically and causally, for example through rates of behaviour.

Question 5Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Weber's concept of Verstehen directs the sociologist to:

  1. measure social behaviour through official statistics
  2. discover universal laws of social evolution
  3. analyse the mode of production underlying institutions
  4. interpret the subjective meanings actors attach to their conduct Correct answer.

Explanation

Verstehen means interpretive understanding of the meaning that actors give to their own actions, which Weber saw as essential to explaining social conduct. It is combined with causal analysis rather than replacing it with mere intuition.

Question 6Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

A researcher argues that sociology should confine itself to observable behaviour and reject unobservable mental states. This position is closest to:

  1. phenomenology
  2. functionalism
  3. interpretivism
  4. behaviourism Correct answer.

Explanation

Behaviourism restricts scientific claims to observable stimuli and responses, treating inner mental states as beyond legitimate study. In sociology it appears in approaches that focus on measurable conduct and its reinforcement.

Question 7Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which statement best captures the relationship between sociology and common sense?

  1. Sociology rejects everyday knowledge as entirely worthless
  2. Sociology tests everyday assumptions systematically rather than accepting them Correct answer.
  3. Sociology treats common sense as identical to scientific evidence
  4. Sociology simply restates what most people already believe

Explanation

Sociology begins with questions that also arise in everyday life but subjects them to systematic evidence, theory and critical scrutiny. Common sense is thus a starting point to be examined, not a substitute for disciplined inquiry.

Question 8Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

In the history of the discipline, the Enlightenment contributed to sociology chiefly by:

  1. introducing statistical sampling to social research
  2. establishing the first university departments of sociology
  3. promoting the idea that society can be studied and improved through reason Correct answer.
  4. founding the tradition of interpretive understanding

Explanation

Enlightenment thought encouraged the belief that social arrangements are human products open to rational investigation and reform. This confidence in reason and progress provided intellectual groundwork for a science of society.

Question 9Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

The conservative reaction to the French Revolution influenced early sociology by encouraging attention to:

  1. revolutionary change as the only path to progress
  2. the abolition of all traditional institutions
  3. order, stability and the shared bonds of society Correct answer.
  4. the reduction of society to individual contracts

Explanation

Thinkers reacting against revolutionary upheaval stressed the fragility of social order and the value of tradition, community and cohesion. This concern with what holds society together shaped early sociological questions about integration and stability.

Question 10Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which of the following best states a defining feature of the sociological approach to studying religion?

  1. It restricts study to sacred texts alone
  2. It examines religion's social sources and consequences alongside belief Correct answer.
  3. It assumes religion always declines with modernisation
  4. It judges whether religious doctrines are theologically true

Explanation

Sociology treats religion as a social phenomenon, asking how beliefs and practices arise from and affect social life without adjudicating their truth. It also avoids assuming any single trajectory such as inevitable decline.

Question 11Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

A student claims that because sociology studies people, it cannot be scientific. Which response best reflects the discipline's self-understanding?

  1. Sociology is scientific only when it ignores meaning entirely
  2. Sociology uses systematic evidence and theory while acknowledging its subjects interpret their own world Correct answer.
  3. Sociology abandons evidence because human behaviour is meaningful
  4. Sociology must imitate physics exactly to count as scientific

Explanation

Sociology pursues systematic, evidence-based and theoretical knowledge while recognising that its subjects give meaning to their actions. This reflexive character shapes method but does not disqualify it as disciplined inquiry.

Question 12Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

The claim that sociology is a 'science of society' is complicated by the fact that social knowledge can feed back into the behaviour studied. This phenomenon is known as:

  1. reflexivity Correct answer.
  2. rationalisation
  3. anomie
  4. alienation

Explanation

Reflexivity here refers to the way social actors can absorb sociological findings and alter their conduct accordingly, so social knowledge becomes part of the world it describes. This loop distinguishes social science from study of inert objects.

Question 13Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which sequence best describes the intellectual context in which sociology emerged as a distinct discipline?

  1. Feudal decline, religious revival, and the end of the printing press
  2. The invention of computing, the Cold War, and globalisation
  3. Industrialisation and urbanisation, political revolution, and Enlightenment and conservative thought Correct answer.
  4. Colonial expansion, the decline of cities, and the rise of guilds

Explanation

Sociology took shape amid the upheavals of industrialisation, urban growth and political revolution, drawing on both Enlightenment confidence in reason and conservative worries about order. These conditions generated new social problems and new questions about how societies cohere.

Question 14Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Spencer's evolutionary sociology is best characterised by which claim?

  1. Class conflict drives all historical change
  2. Social life is governed by the meanings actors share
  3. Societies evolve from simple to complex forms through adaptation Correct answer.
  4. Society is held together by collective conscience alone

Explanation

Spencer applied evolutionary ideas to society, arguing that social structures grow from simple to differentiated forms through adaptation to environments. His framework is often described as social Darwinist in its emphasis on struggle and adjustment.

Question 15Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Marx's contribution to sociology is often summarised by the idea that:

  1. shared values alone guarantee social stability
  2. economic relations shape social institutions and generate class conflict Correct answer.
  3. social action is oriented to the meanings actors give it
  4. social facts must be studied as external constraints

Explanation

Marx argued that the organisation of production underpins other institutions and produces antagonism between classes with opposing interests. His historical materialism supplied a conflict-centred framework distinct from consensus theories.

Question 16Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which question is most distinctively sociological rather than purely economic or psychological?

  1. Which neurotransmitter is active during a moment of anxiety?
  2. What is the maximum price a consumer will pay for a good?
  3. How do patterns of social interaction shape rates of school dropout across communities? Correct answer.
  4. What is the current inflation rate in a national economy?

Explanation

Sociology asks how social relationships, groups and institutions shape outcomes, here by linking interaction patterns to educational outcomes. The other options belong to economics or psychology because they focus on prices, individual cognition or biological processes.

Question 17Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Durkheim's study of suicide is often cited as a landmark because it:

  1. demonstrated that only individual interviews yield valid data
  2. established that suicide rates rise steadily with income
  3. showed that a seemingly private act varies with social integration and regulation Correct answer.
  4. proved that suicide is caused entirely by genetic factors

Explanation

Durkheim used comparative statistics to show that suicide rates vary with degrees of social integration and regulation, treating the rate as a social fact. The study exemplified how sociology could explain apparently individual acts through social patterns.

Question 18Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which statement best captures what is meant by the 'scope' of sociology?

  1. The number of universities offering sociology degrees
  2. The historical date when the term sociology was coined
  3. The range of social phenomena the discipline studies and its boundaries with neighbouring fields Correct answer.
  4. The statistical techniques available to researchers

Explanation

Scope refers to the subject matter a discipline claims and how it is demarcated from adjacent fields such as psychology, economics and anthropology. It concerns what falls within sociological inquiry rather than institutional or technical details.

Question 19Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

A theorist insists that social structures exist only through the practices that reproduce them, while another insists structures constrain actors independently of their awareness. This disagreement primarily concerns:

  1. the validity of official statistics
  2. the relationship between structure and agency Correct answer.
  3. the distinction between sociology and anthropology
  4. the difference between qualitative and quantitative methods

Explanation

The dispute is about whether structures are best understood as constraining entities or as emergent from and dependent on human practice. This structure-agency debate is a central theoretical fault line in the discipline.

Question 20Introduction to Sociology: definition, scope, nature and emergence of the discipline

Which feature most clearly distinguishes sociology from journalism in its treatment of a social problem such as poverty?

  1. Sociology reports individual cases in greater narrative detail
  2. Sociology links evidence to explicit theory and cumulative research findings Correct answer.
  3. Sociology publishes more quickly on current events
  4. Sociology aims to persuade readers of a particular policy

Explanation

Sociology connects empirical evidence to explicit theoretical frameworks and builds on cumulative research, whereas journalism typically prioritises timely narrative and audience appeal. Both can address poverty, but the disciplinary standards of evidence and theory differ.

Question 21Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which term refers to the organized set of shared beliefs and practices that fulfils a basic social need such as education or religion?

  1. Association
  2. Aggregate
  3. Institution Correct answer.
  4. Community

Explanation

An institution is a stable, patterned set of norms, values and roles built around meeting a fundamental social need, such as the family, education or religion. It is distinguished from a mere group by its enduring normative structure rather than by its membership.

Question 22Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A group of commuters standing on the same platform who share a location but interact very little is best described as which of the following?

  1. A social category
  2. A primary group
  3. An aggregate Correct answer.
  4. A community

Explanation

An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be physically together but lack sustained interaction, shared norms or a sense of belonging. Physical co-presence alone does not create a social group.

Question 23Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

According to the classic distinction, which feature most clearly separates a primary group from a secondary group?

  1. The duration of a single meeting
  2. The presence of written rules
  3. The intimacy and personal orientation of relationships Correct answer.
  4. The number of members involved

Explanation

Primary groups are marked by intimate, face-to-face, emotionally charged and diffuse relationships, whereas secondary groups are impersonal, instrumental and segmental. Size and formal rules often accompany the difference but do not define it.

Question 24Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following best captures the sociological meaning of culture?

  1. The inherited biological drives of a population
  2. The physical artefacts housed in museums
  3. The formal legal code enforced by the state
  4. The total learned way of life shared and transmitted by members of a society Correct answer.

Explanation

Culture is the learned, shared and transmitted design for living, including knowledge, beliefs, norms, values and material objects. It is acquired through social interaction rather than inherited biologically.

Question 25Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A society's norms are best understood as which of the following?

  1. The physical environment in which people live
  2. The economic resources owned by households
  3. Shared standards of behaviour that specify what is expected, permitted or forbidden Correct answer.
  4. The genetic predispositions of individuals

Explanation

Norms are shared expectations that guide conduct and are backed by sanctions ranging from informal disapproval to legal punishment. They differ from values, which are broad conceptions of the desirable.

Question 26Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

When a sociologist says that a norm has been internalised, what does this mean?

  1. The individual has made the norm part of their own conscience and self-expectations Correct answer.
  2. The norm has been written into law by legislators
  3. The norm applies only to members of a single family
  4. The norm has been abandoned by the wider society

Explanation

Internalisation means the individual has absorbed a norm so that it is experienced as personally binding, making external enforcement less necessary. Social control then operates through conscience and self-monitoring.

Question 27Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following is the clearest example of a status that is ascribed rather than achieved?

  1. University graduate
  2. Eldest child in a family Correct answer.
  3. Elected mayor
  4. Married spouse

Explanation

An ascribed status is assigned to a person irrespective of individual effort, such as birth order, sex or caste. Achieved statuses are acquired through effort or choice.

Question 28Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A person holds the status of student and behaves in the classroom according to the expectations attached to that status. Sociologists call this behaviour the person's:

  1. Category
  2. Institution
  3. Role Correct answer.
  4. Caste

Explanation

Role refers to the dynamic behavioural expectations attached to a particular status, whereas status is the position itself. A single status can carry several roles, which may produce role conflict.

Question 29Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A woman who is both a full-time worker and a primary carer feels torn between the demands of each position. This situation is best described as:

  1. Role distance
  2. Role conflict Correct answer.
  3. Role strain
  4. Role exit

Explanation

Role conflict arises when the demands of two or more different statuses compete for the same person's time and commitment. Role strain, by contrast, occurs within the demands of a single role.

Question 30Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following best describes the sociological concept of community?

  1. A formally registered organisation with a written constitution
  2. Any group of people who happen to share a common interest
  3. A collectivity whose members share patterned interaction, identity and often a locality Correct answer.
  4. A statistical category defined by a single demographic trait

Explanation

Community combines patterned social interaction, shared identity and often territorial attachment, producing a sense of belonging. Shared interest alone or formal registration is insufficient.

Question 31Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

An association differs from a community mainly because an association:

  1. Has no members
  2. Is based only on kinship
  3. Is formed deliberately to pursue specific goals Correct answer.
  4. Cannot possess rules

Explanation

An association is a deliberately created group with defined membership and specific purposes, whereas a community is a more diffuse collectivity grounded in shared life and identity. Associations are instrumental and purposive.

Question 32Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A young child learns table manners by observing and imitating family members who praise correct behaviour. This process is best described as:

  1. Anticipatory socialisation for a future career
  2. Secondary socialisation in a formal bureaucracy
  3. Primary socialisation through imitation and reinforcement Correct answer.
  4. Resocialisation in a total institution

Explanation

Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood within intimate settings such as the family, largely through imitation, identification and reinforcement. It forms the basis of later learning.

Question 33Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which agent of socialisation is most closely associated with teaching children universalistic standards and achievement based on merit?

  1. The school Correct answer.
  2. The peer group
  3. The family
  4. The mass media

Explanation

The school transmits universalistic standards, formal rules and achievement based on performance, preparing children for wider society. The family tends to transmit particularistic standards rooted in personal relationships.

Question 34Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A person who has internalised the attitudes of significant others and develops a generalised sense of how society expects them to behave has developed what sociologists call:

  1. The id
  2. The generalised other Correct answer.
  3. The looking-glass self
  4. Anomie

Explanation

The concept of the generalised other describes the stage at which an individual internalises the attitudes of the wider community and can take the perspective of society as a whole. It marks mature socialisation.

Question 35Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A student dresses and speaks like practising lawyers in order to prepare for a future legal career. This illustrates:

  1. Primary socialisation
  2. Desocialisation
  3. Role distance
  4. Anticipatory socialisation Correct answer.

Explanation

Anticipatory socialisation is the adoption of the values and behaviour of a group one hopes to join, easing later entry into that status. It is forward-looking rather than a response to current membership.

Question 36Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which statement best expresses the relationship between status and role?

  1. Status and role are identical concepts
  2. Status is the behaviour and role is the position
  3. Status is the position and role is the behaviour expected of it Correct answer.
  4. Role is inherited while status is always achieved

Explanation

Status denotes a social position within a structure, while role denotes the dynamic expectations and behaviour attached to that position. The two are analytically distinct though always linked in practice.

Question 37Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following best illustrates a cultural universal?

  1. The practice of some form of language Correct answer.
  2. The celebration of a particular national holiday
  3. The wearing of a specific style of dress
  4. The use of a specific currency

Explanation

Cultural universals are features found in some form in all known societies, such as language, family arrangements and rules governing incest. Specific currencies, holidays or dress styles vary greatly between societies.

Question 38Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A sociologist distinguishes between the ideal culture of a society and its real culture. This distinction highlights that:

  1. Material culture is more important than non-material culture
  2. Culture is entirely biological in origin
  3. All societies share exactly the same values
  4. Values people profess may differ from the behaviour they actually practise Correct answer.

Explanation

Ideal culture refers to the values and norms a society officially proclaims, while real culture refers to actual behaviour. The gap between them reveals hypocrisy, social change or institutional failure.

Question 39Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which term describes the tendency to judge another culture by the standards of one's own?

  1. Cultural relativism
  2. Cultural lag
  3. Ethnocentrism Correct answer.
  4. Xenocentrism

Explanation

Ethnocentrism is the practice of evaluating other cultures using the standards of one's own, often treating one's own as superior. Cultural relativism, by contrast, seeks to understand a culture in its own terms.

Question 40Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A society rapidly adopts new digital technology while its laws and norms governing online behaviour change slowly. This gap best illustrates:

  1. Cultural lag Correct answer.
  2. Cultural diffusion
  3. Cultural relativism
  4. Cultural universalism

Explanation

Cultural lag describes the delay between changes in material culture, such as technology, and corresponding adjustments in non-material culture such as norms and laws. The uneven pace creates social problems.

Question 41Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following is the best example of a sanction in the sociological sense?

  1. A written constitution
  2. A social status such as teacher
  3. A cultural value such as honesty
  4. A disapproving glance from a colleague Correct answer.

Explanation

A sanction is a reaction, positive or negative, that rewards conformity or punishes deviance, and it may be informal such as a disapproving glance. Sanctions enforce norms rather than being norms, values or positions themselves.

Question 42Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following best defines a total institution in sociological usage?

  1. A voluntary club with an elected committee
  2. A place where people are cut off from wider society and their lives are administratively controlled Correct answer.
  3. A neighbourhood with a shared religious building
  4. A large business corporation with many employees

Explanation

A total institution is a setting such as a prison or monastery where residents are isolated from wider society and their daily lives are managed under a single authority. Such settings typically involve resocialisation.

Question 43Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

A person who is a member of a minority religious community in a society where that faith is stigmatised may experience a tension between the values of the wider society and those of their own group. This is best analysed using the concept of:

  1. Cultural integration
  2. Counterculture
  3. Assimilation
  4. Subculture Correct answer.

Explanation

A subculture is a distinctive set of norms and values held by a group within a wider society, which may coexist with or conflict with dominant values. The tension described arises from the coexistence of a subculture with the wider culture.

Question 44Basic Concepts: society, community, association, institution, culture, socialization, status and role

Which of the following best captures the difference between a social group and a social category?

  1. A group involves interaction and a sense of belonging, while a category is a collection defined by a shared attribute Correct answer.
  2. A group is always larger than a category
  3. A group has no members while a category does
  4. A category involves face-to-face interaction while a group does not

Explanation

Members of a social group interact and recognise themselves as belonging together, whereas a social category is a classificatory collection sharing an attribute such as age without necessarily interacting. The distinction is about interaction and identity, not size.

Question 45Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Which term describes the movement of individuals or groups between different positions in a society's hierarchy over the course of their lifetime?

  1. Structural mobility
  2. Horizontal mobility
  3. Intragenerational mobility Correct answer.
  4. Intergenerational mobility

Explanation

Intragenerational mobility refers to changes in a person's own social position during their working life, such as moving from a manual job into a professional career. Intergenerational mobility instead compares a person's position with that of their parents, and horizontal mobility involves a shift between positions of similar rank.

Question 46Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

In class analysis, what is meant by a 'closed' stratification system?

  1. A system in which mobility is driven by industrial expansion
  2. A system in which positions are allocated mainly by achievement
  3. A system in which class boundaries are flexible but income gaps are wide
  4. A system in which social position is largely fixed at birth Correct answer.

Explanation

A closed system, such as caste or slavery, assigns status at birth and makes movement between strata extremely difficult. Open systems, by contrast, allow achievement and other factors to influence where a person ends up.

Question 47Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

A sociologist measures the strength of association between fathers' occupations and sons' occupations in a national sample. Which concept is being examined most directly?

  1. Status inconsistency
  2. Absolute mobility rates
  3. Relative mobility rates Correct answer.
  4. Geographical mobility

Explanation

Relative mobility concerns the chances of moving between classes once changes in the occupational structure are held constant, and it is measured by the association between origins and destinations. Absolute mobility instead counts the raw proportion of people who end up in a different class from their parents.

Question 48Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Which statement best captures the functionalist view of social stratification?

  1. Stratification is mainly a product of cultural values transmitted through the family
  2. Stratification exists because dominant groups control scarce resources and legitimise their advantage
  3. Stratification reflects the unequal functional importance of roles and the scarcity of talent to fill them Correct answer.
  4. Stratification is unnecessary and could be abolished by reorganising production

Explanation

Functionalists such as Davis and Moore argue that unequal rewards are necessary to attract talented people into the most important positions and to motivate them to train. The theory treats inequality as an integrating mechanism rather than as exploitation.

Question 49Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Marx's concept of a class 'in itself' becoming a class 'for itself' describes which process?

  1. The decline of class identities as societies industrialise
  2. The emergence of collective class consciousness and organised action Correct answer.
  3. The replacement of occupational class by status-based consumption
  4. The rise of a middle class that identifies with neither capital nor labour

Explanation

For Marx, a class 'in itself' exists objectively through shared relations to the means of production, while a class 'for itself' has become aware of those interests and acts collectively. The shift therefore concerns the growth of consciousness and organisation.

Question 50Social Structure, Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Which of the following best illustrates horizontal mobility?

  1. A factory worker's child who becomes a lawyer
  2. A cleaner who becomes a company director
  3. A teacher who moves to a different school to teach the same subject at the same grade Correct answer.
  4. A manual worker who is promoted to supervisor

Explanation

Horizontal mobility involves a change of position or workplace without a significant change in social rank, as when a teacher takes an equivalent post elsewhere. Upward moves such as promotion or entry into the professions are vertical mobility.