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The suffix -ectomy means excision or surgical removal of a structure. Related suffixes include -itis for inflammation, -plasty for repair, and -megaly for enlargement.
Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. It lowers blood glucose by promoting cellular uptake and storage.
The frontal plane, also called the coronal plane, divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections. The sagittal plane divides left and right, and the transverse plane divides upper and lower.
Cocci are spherical bacteria, often seen in pairs, chains, or clusters. Bacilli are rod-shaped, spirilla are spiral-shaped, and vibrios are comma-shaped.
A normal adult resting heart rate is generally 60 to 100 beats per minute. Rates below 60 are bradycardia and rates above 100 are tachycardia in an adult at rest.
Distal describes a structure that is farther from the trunk or point of origin. Proximal describes the opposite, closer to the trunk or attachment point.
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, carry oxygen bound to hemoglobin. Leukocytes and lymphocytes function in immunity, while thrombocytes are involved in clotting.
Vitamin C deficiency impairs collagen synthesis and causes scurvy, with bleeding gums, poor wound healing, and bruising. Rickets is linked to vitamin D, beriberi to thiamine, and pellagra to niacin.
Arterial blood pH is tightly regulated between 7.35 and 7.45. Values below this range indicate acidemia and values above indicate alkalemia.
The heart sits in the mediastinum, which is within the thoracic cavity. The cranial cavity houses the brain, while the abdominal and pelvic cavities contain digestive and reproductive organs.
Cardiac muscle is involuntary and shows striations due to organized contractile filaments. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and striated, while smooth muscle is involuntary but not striated.
The prefix hyper- indicates above, beyond, or excessive, as in hypertension or hyperglycemia. Hypo- means below or under, peri- means around, and intra- means within.
A fomite is an inanimate object that can carry and transmit infectious organisms. A vector is a living carrier, a reservoir is where the organism normally lives and multiplies, and a host is an organism that harbors the pathogen.
The skin is the largest organ by surface area and weight, forming the integumentary system. The liver is the largest internal solid organ but not the largest overall.
The nephron is the microscopic functional unit of the kidney, where filtration, reabsorption, and secretion occur. Alveoli are in the lungs, neurons in nervous tissue, and hepatocytes in the liver.
A normal adult WBC count is approximately 4,500 to 11,000 cells/mm3. Counts above this range suggest leukocytosis, often from infection or inflammation, while lower counts indicate leukopenia.
Brady- means slow, as in bradycardia or bradypnea. Tachy- means fast, dys- means difficult or painful, and a- means without or absent.
In anatomical position, the body stands upright with arms at the sides and palms facing forward, or anteriorly. This standard orientation allows directional terms to be used consistently.
Alveoli are tiny air sacs where oxygen diffuses into pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses out. The bronchi and trachea conduct air, and the pleura is a protective membrane.
Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which cells use readily for ATP production. Protein mainly builds and repairs tissue, fat is a concentrated stored fuel, and water provides no calories.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus. ACTH, TSH, and prolactin are secreted by the anterior pituitary.
The pH is below 7.35, indicating acidemia, and the PaCO2 is elevated above 45 mm Hg, pointing to a respiratory cause. With a normal bicarbonate level, this is an acute respiratory acidosis.
Mycobacterium species, such as M. tuberculosis, have waxy mycolic acids in their cell walls and retain acid-fast stains. Staphylococcus and Escherichia are gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, respectively, and Candida is a fungus.
The mitral valve, also called the bicuspid valve, lies between the left atrium and left ventricle. The tricuspid valve is on the right side, while the pulmonary and aortic valves are semilunar outflow valves.
In DNA, adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.
ATP is generated mainly through oxidative phosphorylation along the inner mitochondrial membrane, so the mitochondrion is often called the powerhouse of the cell. Organelles such as the Golgi, ribosomes, and lysosomes carry out processing, synthesis, and digestion rather than bulk energy production.
To convert pounds to kilograms, divide the weight in pounds by 2.2: 154 ÷ 2.2 = 70 kg. Checking the answer by multiplying 70 kg × 2.2 lb/kg returns 154 lb, confirming the conversion.
A 0.45% sodium chloride solution is hypotonic relative to plasma, which is roughly equivalent to 0.9% sodium chloride. Water moves by osmosis from the lower-solute compartment into the higher-solute interior of the cell, causing it to swell and potentially hemolyze.
Anatomical position is the standard reference posture: standing upright, arms at the sides, feet flat, and palms facing forward. This orientation allows directional terms to be applied consistently.
Medial means nearer the midline of the body, while lateral means farther from it. Distal and superficial describe distance from a point of attachment and proximity to the surface, respectively.
The skin is the largest organ by surface area and weight, forming the body's outer protective covering. The liver is the largest internal solid organ, but it is smaller than the skin overall.
Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete new bone matrix, helping bone grow and repair. Osteoclasts break down bone, while osteocytes maintain mature bone tissue.
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, contain hemoglobin, which binds and carries oxygen. Leukocytes defend against infection, and platelets assist with clotting.
The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the aorta for distribution to the body. It has the thickest myocardium because it generates the highest pressure.
Cardiac muscle cells are joined by intercalated discs, which contain gap junctions and desmosomes that coordinate contraction. Skeletal and smooth muscle lack these structures.
A midsagittal plane runs through the midline and creates equal right and left halves. A sagittal plane off the midline creates unequal right and left portions.
Epithelial tissue forms protective and selective linings on body surfaces and cavity walls. Its cells are closely packed with little extracellular matrix.
The dermis is the middle skin layer, positioned directly under the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands that support the avascular epidermis.
A hinge joint allows flexion and extension in one plane, as seen at the elbow. Ball-and-socket joints allow movement in many directions, and pivot joints allow rotation.
Motor neurons release acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, where it binds receptors on the muscle cell membrane and triggers depolarization. This initiates the events leading to contraction.
The somatic nervous system carries voluntary motor commands to skeletal muscles and relays sensory information from the body. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions.
The mitral valve, also called the bicuspid valve, sits between the left atrium and left ventricle. It closes during ventricular contraction to prevent blood from flowing backward into the atrium.
The small intestine is the primary site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption. Its villi and microvilli greatly increase surface area for absorption.
The nephron is the kidney's functional unit, consisting of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. It filters blood and produces urine.
Insulin, released by pancreatic beta cells, lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake into cells and storage as glycogen. Glucagon has the opposite effect.
Alveoli are tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between air and blood. Their thin walls and large surface area make exchange efficient.
Mitochondria generate most of the cell's ATP through aerobic respiration. Cells with high energy demands, such as muscle cells, contain many mitochondria.
DNA replication occurs during the S phase of interphase, ensuring each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. G1 and G2 are growth phases surrounding the S phase.
Calcium binds to troponin on the thin filament, causing tropomyosin to shift and expose actin's myosin-binding sites. Myosin heads can then form cross-bridges and generate contraction.
The sinoatrial node acts as the heart's natural pacemaker because it spontaneously depolarizes fastest. Its impulse spreads through the atria and then to the AV node.