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Concours IRIC Cameroon practice questions

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Question 1IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which theoretical paradigm of International Relations, prominently associated with Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, argues that complex interdependence and international institutions can facilitate sustained interstate cooperation despite anarchy?

  1. Neoliberal Institutionalism Correct answer.
  2. Offensive Structural Realism
  3. World-Systems Theory
  4. Critical Security Studies

Explanation

Neoliberal institutionalism, formulated by Robert Keohane (notably in *After Hegemony*, 1984) and developed alongside Joseph Nye, argues that international regimes and institutions lower transaction costs, reduce information asymmetries, and mitigate cheating, thereby enabling enduring cooperation.

Question 2IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which foundational concept introduced by Alexander Wendt in his 1992 article *Anarchy is What States Make of It* forms the bedrock of Social Constructivism in International Relations?

  1. State identities and interests are socially constructed through intersubjective interactions rather than given exogenously Correct answer.
  2. Relative military gains dictate the inevitability of conflict across all historical epochs
  3. Democratic states never go to war against one another due to institutional executive constraints
  4. The international economic structure predetermines the diplomatic alignment of peripheral states

Explanation

Social constructivism argues that the international system is not defined solely by material structures (like polarity or arms), but by shared ideas, norms, and intersubjective understandings. Wendt demonstrated that anarchy can lead to Hobbesian (enemy), Lockean (rival), or Kantian (friend) cultures depending on social practices.

Question 3IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The Constitutive Act of the African Union (AU), adopted in Lomé in 2000, introduced a radical departure from the OAU's strict non-interference principle under Article 4(h). What does Article 4(h) specifically authorize?

  1. The right of the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances: war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity Correct answer.
  2. The automatic suspension of any Member State experiencing an economic recession
  3. The unilateral deployment of peacekeepers by any neighbouring state without Assembly authorization
  4. The permanent ceding of national airspace to the African Standby Force during peacetime

Explanation

Article 4(h) of the AU Constitutive Act enshrines the principle of 'non-indifference', giving the AU Assembly the legal authority to intervene in a Member State in cases of grave human rights catastrophes: war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. This fundamentally transformed African collective security.

Question 4IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) relies on five core pillars to prevent and resolve conflicts. Which organ serves as the standing decision-making body of the AU for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflicts?

  1. Peace and Security Council (PSC / CPS) Correct answer.
  2. Pan-African Parliament (PAP)
  3. African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (AfCHPR)
  4. Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC)

Explanation

The Peace and Security Council (PSC / Conseil de Paix et de Sécurité) was created by a Protocol adopted at Durban on 9 July 2002, which entered into force on 26 December 2003; the Council was formally launched in 2004. It is the 15-member standing collective security and early warning body of the AU, supported by the Continental Early Warning System, Panel of the Wise, African Standby Force, and Peace Fund.

Question 5IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which regional economic community (REC), established by the Treaty of Libreville in 1983, encompasses 11 Central African states (including Cameroon) and underwent institutional reform in 2019 to transform its General Secretariat into a Commission?

  1. Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS / CEEAC) Correct answer.
  2. Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC)
  3. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS / CEDEAO)
  4. Southern African Development Community (SADC)

Explanation

ECCAS (CEEAC) was founded in 1983 in Libreville. In December 2019 in Libreville, the Heads of State and Government adopted the revised ECCAS Treaty, which transformed the General Secretariat into a Commission with a President and Vice-President, aligning its structure with the AU and ECOWAS models.

Question 6IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC / CBLT), headquartered in N'Djamena, operationalised which multinational security mechanism to combat Boko Haram / ISWAP insurgencies across Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria?

  1. Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF / FMM) Correct answer.
  2. G5 Sahel Joint Force
  3. African Standby Force Central Brigade (FOMAC)
  4. ECOWAS Standby Force (ESF)

Explanation

The Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF / Force Multinationale Mixte) was revitalized by the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) and Benin in 2014–2015, with headquarters in N'Djamena, divided into four national operational sectors (including Sector 1 headquartered in Mora, Far North Region of Cameroon).

Question 7IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In which year did the Republic of Cameroon officially join the Commonwealth of Nations as its 52nd member state, thereby formalising its dual diplomatic belonging to both the Francophonie and the Commonwealth?

  1. 1995 Correct answer.
  2. 1960
  3. 1984
  4. 2002

Explanation

Cameroon was formally admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Auckland, New Zealand, on 1 November 1995 (effective 13 November 1995). This reinforced Cameroon's bilingual and bicultural international identity.

Question 8IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which enduring diplomatic principle has formed the cornerstone of Cameroonian foreign policy since 1960, characterized by refusing alignment with Cold War power blocs and maintaining diversified bilateral partnerships?

  1. Non-alignment and active diplomacy of presence (Diplomatie de présence et de rayonnement) Correct answer.
  2. Monroe Doctrine hemispheric isolationism
  3. Exclusive bilateralism tied solely to the former colonial power
  4. Offensive forward defense and cross-border unilateralism

Explanation

Cameroonian foreign policy is grounded in non-alignment (*non-alignement*), peaceful settlement of disputes, respect for sovereignty, good neighbourliness (*bon voisinage*), and open bilateral cooperation with all sovereign states, formulated as a diplomacy of presence and development.

Question 9IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The concept of 'soft power', defined as the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without force or coercion through culture, political values, and foreign policies, was coined by which international relations scholar?

  1. Joseph Nye Correct answer.
  2. Samuel Huntington
  3. Francis Fukuyama
  4. Hedley Bull

Explanation

Joseph S. Nye Jr. introduced the concept of 'soft power' in his 1990 book *Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power* and further developed it in *Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics* (2004), contrasting it with hard power (military and economic coercion).

Question 10IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The English School of International Relations, developed by theorists such as Martin Wight and Hedley Bull, posits that states exist in an 'international society' rather than mere anarchy. What distinguishes an international society from an international system?

  1. States in an international society share common rules, values, and institutions for conducting relations Correct answer.
  2. An international society requires a single world government to enforce sovereign decrees
  3. An international society exists only when all member states adopt the same domestic legal constitution
  4. An international system has diplomatic missions whereas an international society relies exclusively on war

Explanation

Hedley Bull in *The Anarchical Society* (1977) explained that while an international system exists when states have sufficient contact to impact one another, an international society emerges when states recognize common interests, values, and rules (international law, diplomacy, balance of power, sovereignty) that bind them.

Question 11IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which landmark 1955 conference held in Indonesia brought together 29 Asian and African states to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and oppose colonialism, laying the ideological foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement?

  1. Bandung Conference Correct answer.
  2. Belgrade Conference
  3. Cairo Conference
  4. Accra Conference

Explanation

The Asian-African Conference of Bandung was held in April 1955. It formulated the Ten Principles of Bandung (Panchsheel adaptation) promoting sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, and equality, leading directly to the 1961 Belgrade Summit where the Non-Aligned Movement was formally launched.

Question 12IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) Cairo Declaration of July 1964 (AHG/Res. 16(1)) established a foundational norm regarding African borders that remains vital to continental stability. What is this principle?

  1. Uti possidetis juris - the intangibility of frontiers existing at the achievement of national independence Correct answer.
  2. The mandatory renegotiation of all colonial demarcations based on ethnic homogeneity
  3. The unilateral right of landlocked states to annex coastal corridors
  4. The abolition of state borders in favor of immediate continental federalism

Explanation

The 1964 OAU Cairo Resolution pledged all member states to respect the borders existing on their achievement of national independence (*uti possidetis juris* / intangibilité des frontières héritées de la colonisation). This principle averted widespread territorial conflict across post-colonial Africa.

Question 13IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In the diplomacy of regional maritime security, which major 2013 summit held in Yaoundé established the Code of Conduct and inter-regional architecture for combating piracy and armed robbery in the Gulf of Guinea?

  1. Joint Summit of Heads of State and Government of ECCAS, ECOWAS, and the Gulf of Guinea Commission (Yaoundé Summit) Correct answer.
  2. First African Union Maritime Cabotage Conference in Durban
  3. United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in Montego Bay
  4. Bonn International Conference on Maritime Piracy

Explanation

The Yaoundé Summit of June 2013 brought together Heads of State from ECCAS, ECOWAS, and the Gulf of Guinea Commission (CGC). It produced the Yaoundé Code of Conduct and created the Inter-Regional Coordination Centre (ICC / CIC) in Yaoundé, establishing a shared maritime surveillance grid from Senegal to Angola.

Question 14IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which organ of the African Union, established under the 2001 New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) framework, serves as a voluntary self-monitoring mechanism to promote good governance and socioeconomic development?

  1. African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM / MAEP) Correct answer.
  2. African Development Bank (AfDB)
  3. African Union Development Agency (AUDA-NEPAD)
  4. Committee of Intelligence and Security Services of Africa (CISSA)

Explanation

The African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM / Mécanisme Africain d'Évaluation par les Pairs) was established in 2003 by the NEPAD Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee. It monitors progress across four thematic areas: democracy and political governance, economic governance, corporate governance, and socioeconomic development.

Question 15IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the primary geostrategic mandate of the Gulf of Guinea Commission (GGC / Commission du Golfe de Guinée - CGG), established by a treaty signed in Libreville in 2001?

  1. Strengthening consultation, peace, security, and joint exploitation of natural resources among coastal states in the Gulf of Guinea Correct answer.
  2. Issuing a unified central maritime currency across West and Central Africa
  3. Supervising the construction of a trans-Atlantic undersea rail tunnel
  4. Managing the export quotas for the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Explanation

The Gulf of Guinea Commission (GGC) was founded in 2001 (Treaty entered into force in 2006) by Angola, Cameroon, Republic of Congo, DRC, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, and Sao Tome and Principe to harmonize relations, resolve maritime border issues, and ensure peace and joint natural resource management.

Question 16IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In the study of diplomatic strategy, what does the 'Thucydides Trap', popularized by Graham Allison in 2017, refer to?

  1. The structural stress and high propensity for war that occurs when a rising power threatens to displace an established ruling hegemon Correct answer.
  2. The tendency of democratic states to enter into unsustainable military alliances during peacetime
  3. The diplomatic deadlock caused by the permanent veto mechanism in the UN Security Council
  4. The vulnerability of landlocked states to naval embargoes by neighbouring coastal nations

Explanation

Graham Allison in *Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides's Trap?* (2017) analyzed Thucydides's historical insight from the Peloponnesian War: 'It was the rise of Athens and the fear that this instilled in Sparta that made war inevitable.' Allison identified 16 historical cases where an emerging power challenged a dominant power, 12 of which ended in war.

Question 17IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which theory of international conflict resolution, associated with Johan Galtung, distinguishes between 'negative peace' and 'positive peace'?

  1. Negative peace is the absence of direct physical violence, whereas positive peace is the absence of structural and cultural violence and the presence of social justice Correct answer.
  2. Negative peace requires total military disarmament, while positive peace requires nuclear deterrence
  3. Negative peace refers to treaties between non-democracies, whereas positive peace applies only to democracies
  4. Negative peace involves UN peace enforcement under Chapter VII, while positive peace is Chapter VI mediation

Explanation

Johan Galtung, the founder of peace research, established that negative peace is simply the cessation or absence of direct, personal violence (such as a ceasefire). Positive peace requires eliminating structural violence (poverty, discrimination, institutional inequality) and cultural violence to build sustainable justice and human security.

Question 18IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC / Forum sur la Coopération sino-africaine), established in Beijing in 2000, operates as a triennial ministerial dialogue. What is the defining principle of China's South-South diplomatic cooperation in Africa?

  1. Mutual benefit (win-win / gagnant-gagnant), non-interference in domestic political affairs, and infrastructure-for-development financing Correct answer.
  2. Imposition of political governance conditionalities and structural adjustment programmes
  3. Establishment of binding military command alliances under the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
  4. Requiring all partner countries to abandon the UN Charter in favor of bilateral treaties

Explanation

China's foreign policy towards Africa under FOCAC emphasizes the 'Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence', focusing on sovereignty, non-interference in internal political governance, pragmatic economic cooperation (*win-win*), and concessional infrastructure lending through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Question 19IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which strategic doctrine adopted by the African Union at the 2013 Golden Jubilee Summit aims to eradicate all wars, civil conflicts, and gender-based violence on the continent by modernizing security frameworks?

  1. Silencing the Guns by 2020/2030 (Faire taire les armes) Correct answer.
  2. Operation Sovereign Borders
  3. African Monroe Plan
  4. Operation Artemis

Explanation

'Silencing the Guns' (*Faire taire les armes*) is a flagship initiative of the AU's Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want. Originally targeted for 2020 and subsequently extended to 2030, it focuses on addressing the root causes of conflict, illicit small arms flows, and strengthening early warning systems.

Question 20IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

The concept of 'hegemonic stability theory', developed by Charles Kindleberger and Robert Gilpin, argues that:

  1. The international economic and political system is most stable and open when a single dominant state is willing and able to provide global public goods and enforce the rules of the system Correct answer.
  2. Bipolar systems are inherently more prone to nuclear war than multipolar balances of power
  3. Small states have greater diplomatic leverage in multilateral organizations than dominant superpowers
  4. Anarchy in the international system automatically generates an equilibrium without requiring leadership

Explanation

Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST) posits that an open, liberal global economy requires a hegemon (such as Great Britain in the 19th century or the United States after 1945) to supply public goods like an open market for distressed goods, stable international currency, countercyclical lending, and security of maritime sea lines of communication.

Question 21IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which international agreement signed in 2000 in Cotonou, Benin, succeeded the Lomé Conventions as the comprehensive framework for relations between the European Union and 79 African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP / OEACP) states?

  1. Cotonou Agreement (succeeded in 2023 by the Samoa Agreement) Correct answer.
  2. Yaoundé I Agreement
  3. Arusha Agreement
  4. Maastricht Treaty

Explanation

The Cotonou Agreement was signed in June 2000 for a 20-year period, replacing the Lomé Conventions (1975–2000). It integrated political dialogue, human rights conditionalities, and Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). In November 2023, the EU and OACPS signed its successor, the Samoa Agreement.

Question 22IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In contemporary African security diplomacy, what was the primary mandate of the Multinational Joint Task Force's Sector 1, stationed on Cameroonian territory?

  1. Conducting counter-insurgency and stabilization operations against terrorist groups along the northern border and Lake Chad basin from its command post in Mora Correct answer.
  2. Securing maritime oil platforms in the Gulf of Guinea off the coast of Limbe
  3. Patrolling the eastern frontier with the Central African Republic to prevent rebel incursions
  4. Supervising civil aviation air traffic control across the Douala-Yaoundé flight corridor

Explanation

Sector 1 of the MNJTF (FMM) is headquartered in Mora, in the Far North Region of Cameroon. It is tasked with securing Cameroon's northern borders, neutralizing Boko Haram/ISWAP cross-border terrorist incursions, and facilitating humanitarian access in the Lake Chad basin.

Question 23IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which international relations school of thought argues that the foreign policy choices of states are heavily shaped by bureaucratic politics, organizational routines, and standard operating procedures rather than unitary rational choice?

  1. Bureaucratic Politics and Organizational Process Model (Graham Allison) Correct answer.
  2. Structural Neorealism (Kenneth Waltz)
  3. Offensive Realism (John Mearsheimer)
  4. Hegemonic War Theory (Robert Gilpin)

Explanation

Graham Allison in *Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis* (1971) challenged the unitary rational actor model by introducing Model II (Organizational Process Model) and Model III (Bureaucratic Politics Model: 'where you stand depends on where you sit').

Question 24IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the primary role of the Committee of Intelligence and Security Services of Africa (CISSA), headquartered in Addis Ababa and established in 2004?

  1. Assisting the African Union and its Peace and Security Council with timely intelligence analysis to proactively manage continental peace and security threats Correct answer.
  2. Conducting armed military strikes against rebel forces across Africa
  3. Regulating international passport issuance for African diplomats
  4. Auditing the financial transactions of central banks across the continent

Explanation

CISSA was established in 2004 in Abuja, Nigeria, as a platform for African intelligence and security agencies to collaborate, share critical intelligence, and provide strategic security assessments directly to the AU Commission and the Peace and Security Council.

Question 25IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

According to Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which of the following represents the primary formal sources of public international law?

  1. International conventions/treaties, international custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law, and general principles of law recognized by civilized nations Correct answer.
  2. Resolutions of the UN General Assembly and unilateral declarations by sovereign presidents only
  3. Bilateral commercial contracts and municipal court criminal judgments only
  4. Academic textbooks and non-governmental organization advocacy reports

Explanation

Article 38(1) of the ICJ Statute lists the primary sources: (a) international conventions/treaties; (b) international custom (consisting of state practice *diuturnitas* and *opinio juris*); (c) general principles of law. Judicial decisions and teachings of the most highly qualified publicists are subsidiary means.

Question 26IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), what constitutes a peremptory norm of general international law (*jus cogens*) pursuant to Article 53?

  1. A norm accepted and recognized by the international community of states as a whole from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of the same character Correct answer.
  2. Any bilateral commercial treaty signed between two democratic nations
  3. A non-binding soft law declaration issued at a multilateral climate summit
  4. A domestic constitutional law that takes precedence over international maritime treaties

Explanation

Article 53 of the 1969 VCLT defines *jus cogens* as a peremptory norm from which no derogation is permitted. Any treaty that conflicts with a peremptory norm (e.g., prohibitions on aggression, genocide, slavery, torture, and racial discrimination) is void *ab initio*.

Question 27IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Article 22 of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) establishes which fundamental rule regarding diplomatic premises (*locaux de la mission*)?

  1. The premises of the mission shall be inviolable; the agents of the receiving state may not enter them except with the consent of the head of the mission Correct answer.
  2. The receiving state may enter the embassy at any time without notice for municipal tax inspection
  3. Diplomatic premises are sovereign territory of the sending state under extraterritorial fiction
  4. Diplomatic premises lose all protections automatically if a fire occurs on the property

Explanation

Article 22 of the 1961 VCDR explicitly establishes the inviolability of embassy premises. The receiving state has a special duty to protect the premises against any intrusion, damage, or disturbance of peace. Modern international law rejects the old legal fiction of 'extraterritoriality' in favor of functional inviolability.

Question 28IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under Article 9 of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, what diplomatic prerogative may the receiving state exercise at any time and without having to explain its decision?

  1. Declare the head of mission or any member of the diplomatic staff persona non grata Correct answer.
  2. Arrest and imprison the ambassador for municipal misdemeanours
  3. Confiscate the official archives and diplomatic pouch of the sending state
  4. Unilaterally rewrite the bilateral boundaries between the two countries

Explanation

Under Article 9(1) of the VCDR, the receiving state may at any time and without having to explain its decision notify the sending state that the head of mission or any diplomatic staff member is *persona non grata*. The sending state must then recall that person or terminate their functions.

Question 29IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In the landmark judgment of 10 October 2002 by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the *Case Concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria* (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening), what was the decisive ruling regarding the Bakassi Peninsula?

  1. Sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula lies with Cameroon, based on the validity of the 1913 Anglo-German Agreement Correct answer.
  2. Bakassi was declared an international condominium jointly administered under the UN Trusteeship Council
  3. The Peninsula was awarded to Nigeria on the grounds of historical demographic settlement
  4. The border was left undetermined pending a binding local referendum

Explanation

On 10 October 2002, the ICJ ruled that sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula belonged to Cameroon, validating the Anglo-German Agreement of 11 March 1913. For the maritime boundary the Court relied on the Yaoundé II Declaration (4 April 1971) and the Maroua Declaration (1 June 1975). The judgment was peacefully implemented through the 2006 Greentree Agreement brokered by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan.

Question 30IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, which organ has the exclusive authority to determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression, and to order binding non-military or military enforcement measures?

  1. Security Council (Article 39) Correct answer.
  2. General Assembly (Article 10)
  3. International Court of Justice (Article 92)
  4. Economic and Social Council (Article 62)

Explanation

Article 39 of Chapter VII of the UN Charter confers on the Security Council the exclusive power to determine the existence of threats to peace, breaches of peace, or acts of aggression, and to decide on measures under Article 41 (sanctions, embargoes) and Article 42 (military force).

Question 31IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What voting rule applies to substantive (non-procedural) decisions taken by the United Nations Security Council pursuant to Article 27(3) of the UN Charter?

  1. An affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members (P5 veto power) Correct answer.
  2. A simple majority of eight members regardless of permanent member votes
  3. Unanimity of all fifteen member states present and voting
  4. A two-thirds majority of the General Assembly upon Security Council recommendation

Explanation

Article 27(3) requires an affirmative vote of 9 members including the concurring votes of the Permanent Five (China, France, Russia, UK, USA). By established practice since the 1950s, the abstention or absence of a permanent member is not regarded as a veto.

Question 32IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC / CPI), adopted in 1998, which principle governs the relationship between the ICC's jurisdiction and national criminal jurisdictions?

  1. Principle of Complementarity - the ICC acts only when national courts are unwilling or genuinely unable to investigate and prosecute Correct answer.
  2. Principle of Universal Primacy - the ICC automatically supersedes national courts in all felony proceedings
  3. Principle of Exclusive Executive Referral - only the UN Secretary-General can initiate proceedings
  4. Principle of Immediate Immunity - heads of state enjoy lifelong immunity from ICC prosecution

Explanation

Article 17 of the Rome Statute establishes the principle of complementarity. The ICC is a court of last resort; it does not replace domestic courts and will declare a case inadmissible if it is being investigated or prosecuted by a state having jurisdiction, unless the state is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the proceedings.

Question 33IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which core principle of the Law of the Sea, codified in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS / CNUDM), defines the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ / ZEE)?

  1. An area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea extending up to 200 nautical miles from baselines, where the coastal state has sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources Correct answer.
  2. A 12-nautical-mile zone of absolute territorial sovereignty where no foreign vessel may enter
  3. The international seabed area designated as the common heritage of mankind
  4. An unrestricted high-seas fishing corridor reserved exclusively for landlocked nations

Explanation

Under UNCLOS Part V (Articles 55–75), the EEZ extends up to 200 nautical miles from the territorial baseline. The coastal state exercises sovereign rights over living and non-living marine resources (fisheries, hydrocarbons) and jurisdiction over marine scientific research and environmental protection, while other states enjoy freedoms of navigation and overflight.

Question 34IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the legal effect of the Latin maxim *Pacta sunt servanda*, codified in Article 26 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties?

  1. Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith Correct answer.
  2. Treaties become invalid automatically after twenty years unless re-ratified
  3. A change of government automatically relieves a state of all international treaty obligations
  4. Oral declarations by junior diplomats take precedence over written ratified conventions

Explanation

Article 26 of the VCLT states: 'Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith.' *Pacta sunt servanda* is the foundational rule of international treaty law and customary international relations.

Question 35IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under what exceptional circumstance does Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties allow a party to invoke a 'fundamental change of circumstances' (*clausula rebus sic stantibus*) as a ground for terminating or withdrawing from a treaty?

  1. When the change was unforeseen, the existence of those circumstances constituted an essential basis of consent, and the effect of the change radically transforms the extent of obligations still to be performed Correct answer.
  2. Whenever a newly elected president disagrees with the policy priorities of their predecessor
  3. When a state decides that its municipal tax revenues are insufficient to pay annual treaty dues
  4. When an international treaty establishes a permanent boundary

Explanation

Article 62 of the VCLT strictly regulates *rebus sic stantibus*. It requires that the change was unforeseen, affected an essential basis of consent, radically transforms remaining obligations, and was not caused by a breach by the invoking party. Crucially, Article 62(2)(a) explicitly bars invoking it to terminate treaties establishing a boundary.

Question 36IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In the law of diplomatic relations, what is the formal procedure known as *agrément* pursuant to Article 4 of the 1961 Vienna Convention?

  1. The prior consent requested by the sending state from the receiving state before accrediting an Ambassador or Head of Mission Correct answer.
  2. The written permission granted by customs authorities to inspect an ambassador's personal vehicle
  3. The bilateral extradition treaty signed before exchanging consular agents
  4. The solemn ceremony during which an ambassador receives a medal from the host government

Explanation

Article 4(1) of the VCDR requires that the sending state must make certain that the *agrément* of the receiving state has been given for the person it proposes to accredit as head of the mission. Under Article 4(2), the receiving state is not obliged to give reasons for a refusal of agrément.

Question 37IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the legal status and protection afforded to the diplomatic pouch / diplomatic bag (*valise diplomatique*) under Article 27(3) of the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations?

  1. The diplomatic bag shall not be opened or detained under any circumstances by the receiving or transit state Correct answer.
  2. The diplomatic bag may be opened at airport security if police suspect it contains non-diplomatic literature
  3. The diplomatic bag must be delivered exclusively by the Minister of Foreign Affairs in person
  4. The diplomatic bag enjoys inviolability only during daylight hours

Explanation

Article 27(3) of the VCDR provides absolute protection: 'The diplomatic bag shall not be opened or detained.' Packages constituting the diplomatic bag must bear visible external marks of their character and may contain only diplomatic documents or articles intended for official use (Article 27(4)).

Question 38IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which advisory opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice in 1949 established that the United Nations possesses objective international legal personality and the capacity to bring international claims?

  1. Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations Correct answer.
  2. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons
  3. Western Sahara Advisory Opinion
  4. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory

Explanation

In *Reparation for Injuries* (1949), following the assassination of UN mediator Count Folke Bernadotte in Jerusalem, the ICJ held that the UN is an international person possessing implied powers and the legal capacity to bring international claims against states to obtain reparation for damage caused to the Organization and its agents.

Question 39IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the core distinction between the diplomatic mission (Embassy) and the consular post (Consulate) in international law?

  1. An Embassy is primarily political and represents the sending state in all relations with the central host government, whereas a Consulate focuses on administrative, commercial, and citizen protection services within a specific district Correct answer.
  2. Embassies are governed by customary law while Consulates are governed by domestic military codes
  3. Embassies can only be located in coastal cities while Consulates must be in the political capital
  4. Consuls enjoy full diplomatic immunity from criminal prosecution whereas Ambassadors enjoy only functional immunity

Explanation

Diplomatic missions (1961 VCDR) represent the sovereign state politically to the receiving state's central authorities and conduct high-level foreign policy. Consular posts (1963 VCCR) perform administrative, commercial, civil registration, passport/visa, and citizen assistance functions within assigned consular districts.

Question 40IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Under the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their 1977 Additional Protocols, what constitutes the fundamental distinction between combatants and non-combatants/civilians during armed conflicts?

  1. Principle of Distinction - parties to a conflict must at all times distinguish between civilian populations and combatants, and between civilian objects and military objectives Correct answer.
  2. Principle of Unrestricted Engagement - any civilian living in enemy territory is legally considered an active combatant
  3. Principle of Bilateral Retaliation - war crimes by one party justify equal war crimes against civilian targets by the adversary
  4. Principle of Absolute Secrecy - military tribunals need not disclose charges against detained civilians

Explanation

The Principle of Distinction (codified in Article 48 of Additional Protocol I of 1977) is the cardinal pillar of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). Attacks may only be directed against military objectives; targeting civilians or civilian infrastructure is strictly prohibited.

Question 41IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which historic treaty signed on 12 June 2006 by President Paul Biya of Cameroon and President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria established the modalities for the peaceful transfer of authority over the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon?

  1. Greentree Agreement Correct answer.
  2. Maroua Declaration
  3. Yaoundé Accord
  4. Lomé Protocol

Explanation

The Greentree Agreement was signed on 12 June 2006 in Manhasset (New York) at the Greentree Estate, under the auspices of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan and witnessed by Germany, the US, France, and the UK. It led to the withdrawal of Nigerian forces and the complete handover of Bakassi administration to Cameroon on 14 August 2008.

Question 42IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the legal effect of a reservation (*réserve*) made by a state upon signing or ratifying a multilateral treaty under Article 19 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties?

  1. It purports to exclude or modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that state, provided the reservation is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty Correct answer.
  2. It allows the reserving state to unilaterally cancel the treaty for all other signatory states
  3. It automatically converts the multilateral treaty into a non-binding declaration for all signatories
  4. It forces the depositary to re-draft the entire convention from scratch

Explanation

Under Article 2(1)(d) and Article 19 of the VCLT, a reservation is a unilateral statement whereby a state purports to exclude or modify the legal effect of specific treaty articles in their application to that state. Reservations cannot be made if prohibited by the treaty or if incompatible with the treaty's object and purpose (1951 *Genocide Convention* ICJ Advisory Opinion rule).

Question 43IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In international environmental law, which principle codified in Principle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration establishes that where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation?

  1. Precautionary Principle (Principe de précaution) Correct answer.
  2. Polluter Pays Principle (Principe pollueur-payeur)
  3. Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
  4. Principle of Territorial Sovereignty

Explanation

Principle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development defines the Precautionary Principle (*principe de précaution*). It shifts the burden of proof, requiring preventive action even in the absence of absolute scientific certainty when faced with risks of irreversible ecological catastrophe.

Question 44IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the primary function of the United Nations International Law Commission (ILC / Commission du droit international - CDI), established by the General Assembly in 1947?

  1. Promoting the progressive development of international law and its codification Correct answer.
  2. Adjudicating maritime border boundary disputes between member states
  3. Deploying UN peacekeeping forces to conflict zones
  4. Drafting national constitutions for newly independent countries

Explanation

Article 13(1)(a) of the UN Charter tasked the General Assembly with encouraging the progressive development and codification of international law. To execute this, the GA created the 34-member International Law Commission (ILC) in 1947, which drafted foundational treaties including the 1961 VCDR, 1969 VCLT, the Rome Statute, and the Articles on State Responsibility (2001).

Question 45IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

According to the Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA), adopted by the ILC in 2001, what are the two constitutive elements of an internationally wrongful act?

  1. Conduct consisting of an action or omission attributable to the State under international law, which constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State Correct answer.
  2. A formal declaration of war accompanied by economic sanctions
  3. A violation of domestic municipal criminal law approved by a national parliament
  4. A unilateral denunciation of a cultural exchange treaty

Explanation

Article 2 of the 2001 ILC Articles on State Responsibility defines an internationally wrongful act of a State as having two elements: (a) conduct (act or omission) attributable to the State under international law (subjective element); and (b) conduct constituting a breach of an international obligation (objective element).

Question 46IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which diplomatic privilege prevents the private residence, papers, correspondence, and property of a diplomatic agent from being subjected to search, requisition, attachment, or execution by the receiving state?

  1. Inviolability of private residence and property (Article 30 VCDR) Correct answer.
  2. Consular functional immunity (Article 43 VCCR)
  3. Commercial arbitration waiver
  4. Universal jurisdiction exemption

Explanation

Article 30 of the 1961 VCDR grants the private residence of a diplomatic agent the same inviolability and protection as the premises of the mission. His papers, correspondence, and property (with narrow exceptions in Article 31(1)) likewise enjoy complete inviolability.

Question 47IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

What is the legal effect of a United Nations Security Council referral to the International Criminal Court under Article 13(b) of the Rome Statute?

  1. It grants the ICC jurisdiction over crimes committed in the territory or by nationals of a state that is NOT a party to the Rome Statute Correct answer.
  2. It requires the UN General Assembly to conduct the trial directly
  3. It automatically suspends all investigations by the ICC Prosecutor for five years
  4. It obligates the ICC to find the accused guilty without a public trial

Explanation

Under Article 13(b) of the Rome Statute, acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the Security Council can refer a situation to the ICC even if the state involved has not ratified the Rome Statute (as occurred with Darfur/Sudan in Resolution 1593 in 2005 and Libya in Resolution 1970 in 2011).

Question 48IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In the law of treaties, what occurs when a state ratifies a treaty subject to an 'interpretative declaration' (*déclaration interprétative*) rather than a formal reservation?

  1. The state clarifies the meaning or scope it attributes to treaty provisions without purporting to exclude or modify their legal effect Correct answer.
  2. The state automatically terminates its participation in the treaty after one calendar year
  3. The treaty becomes legally void for all other contracting states
  4. The interpretative declaration is identical in legal effect to an amendment under Article 40 VCLT

Explanation

An interpretative declaration purports to specify or clarify the meaning or scope attributed by the declarant state to a treaty or to certain of its provisions. Unlike a reservation, it does not seek to exclude or modify the legal effect of the treaty, although an 'impermissible disguise reservation' will be treated according to its substance.

Question 49IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

Which United Nations General Assembly resolution, adopted on 14 December 1960, is known as the 'Magna Carta of Decolonization', declaring that the subjection of peoples to alien subjugation, domination, and exploitation constitutes a denial of fundamental human rights?

  1. Resolution 1514 (XV) - Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples Correct answer.
  2. Resolution 2625 (XXV) - Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations
  3. Resolution 1803 (XVII) - Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources
  4. Resolution 377 (V) - Uniting for Peace

Explanation

Resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 solemnly proclaimed the necessity of bringing a speedy and unconditional end to colonialism in all its forms and manifestations, affirming the inalienable right of all peoples to self-determination and national sovereignty.

Question 50IRIC international relations: theory, sources, institutions and economic arguments

In classical international trade theory, David Ricardo's Theory of Comparative Advantage (1817) demonstrated that:

  1. A country will gain from international trade by specializing in and exporting goods that it produces at a lower opportunity cost relative to other goods, even if it has an absolute disadvantage in producing everything Correct answer.
  2. Countries should export only goods in which they have an absolute labor productivity advantage over all competitors
  3. International trade is a zero-sum game where one country's surplus is another's loss
  4. Trade tariffs should always be set at 50% to maximize domestic government revenue

Explanation

David Ricardo (*On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation*, 1817) demonstrated through his famous England-Portugal cloth and wine example that trade benefits both nations if each specializes in the product in which it holds a comparative advantage (lowest opportunity cost), refuting mercantilist zero-sum views.