Financial statements, assets, inventory and cash-flow models
Financial statements and company equity
What the domain tests
You must prepare a trading account, profit and loss account and balance sheet from a trial balance, adjusting for accruals, prepayments, depreciation, bad debts, provisions and inventory. The exam rewards correct structure and correct treatment of adjustments.
Structure and rules
Trading account: sales less returns inwards gives net sales. Cost of sales is opening inventory + purchases + carriage inwards − returns outwards − closing inventory. Gross profit is net sales less cost of sales.
Profit and loss account: gross profit plus other income less expenses. Depreciation, bad debts, increase in the provision for doubtful debts, discount allowed and accruals are expenses. Carriage outwards, administration and selling costs are expenses. Drawings are not an expense.
Balance sheet: non-current assets at net book value; current assets include inventory, receivables net of provision, prepayments and bank/cash; current liabilities include payables, accruals and bank overdraft; long-term liabilities; capital is opening capital + additional capital introduced + net profit − drawings.
Worked example
Sales 2,000,000; returns inwards 100,000; opening inventory 200,000; purchases 1,300,000; returns outwards 50,000; carriage inwards 30,000; closing inventory 250,000. Expenses are 300,000, depreciation 80,000 and bad debts 20,000.
- Net sales = 1,900,000.
- Cost of sales = 200,000 + 1,300,000 + 30,000 − 50,000 − 250,000 = 1,230,000.
- Gross profit = 670,000.
- Net profit = 670,000 − 300,000 − 80,000 − 20,000 = 270,000. Closing inventory appears in the trading account and as a current asset, never twice in the same account.
Traps
Carriage inwards is part of cost of sales; carriage outwards is a distribution expense. In the specified periodic-purchases model, goods taken by the owner are Dr Drawings; Cr Purchases at cost. A perpetual-inventory model instead credits inventory. An increase in the provision for doubtful debts is an expense, but a decrease is income. Accrued expenses are current liabilities and prepaid expenses are current assets. Do not deduct drawings before calculating net profit.
What the domain tests
You must record share issues, distinguish types of capital and reserves, account for debentures and dividends, and present a company income statement and statement of financial position. Questions often involve share premium, debenture interest and tax.
Core rules
- Where the legal system uses authorized capital, it denotes an issue limit rather than the actual issued capital balance. Its existence and required disclosures must be checked locally.
- Issued capital is the nominal value of shares actually issued. Called-up capital is the amount demanded; paid-up capital is the amount received.
- Share premium arises when shares are issued above nominal value and is a capital reserve, not profit.
- Debentures are long-term borrowings. Debenture interest is a finance cost charged before tax, not an appropriation of profit.
- In this simple equity-share model, ordinary dividends are distributions to owners rather than expenses. Instruments called preference shares may have different liability/equity classification, so their accounting is not settled by the label alone.
- Reserves include share premium, revaluation surplus and retained earnings.
Worked example
A company issues 100,000 ordinary shares of 1,000 FCFA each at 1,250 FCFA, fully paid. Profit before interest and tax is 40,000,000; 10% debentures are 50,000,000; the hypothetical tax rate is 30%, taxable profit is assumed equal to profit before tax; an ordinary dividend of 8% is declared; 5,000,000 is transferred to a general reserve.
- Share issue: Dr Bank 125,000,000; Cr Ordinary share capital 100,000,000; Cr Share premium 25,000,000.
- Debenture interest = 5,000,000. Profit before tax = 35,000,000. Tax = 10,500,000. Profit after tax = 24,500,000.
- Dividend = 8% × 100,000,000 = 8,000,000. Transfer = 5,000,000. Retained profit for the year = 11,500,000.
Traps
Under the supplied ordinary-equity and expense-recognition model, dividends are distributions and debenture interest is not a profit appropriation. Actual liability/equity classification and capitalization requirements depend on the instrument and framework. Legal restrictions on share premium and distributions depend on the actual jurisdiction; do not infer them from the generic ledger example. Authorised capital is not the figure in the statement of financial position. Do not ignore tax when calculating distributable profit. Calls in arrears reduce paid-up capital, and a bonus issue converts reserves into share capital without raising cash.
Inventory and production cost
What the domain tests
You must prepare a manufacturing account to find cost of production, apportion production overheads, and value inventory using the lower of cost and net realisable value. The exam also tests the link between the manufacturing and trading accounts.
Manufacturing account structure
- Direct materials consumed = opening raw materials + purchases + carriage inwards on materials − closing raw materials.
- Prime cost = direct materials consumed + direct labour + direct expenses.
- Cost of production = prime cost + production overheads + opening work in progress − closing work in progress.
Production overheads include factory rent, factory depreciation, factory power and factory supervision. Administration, selling and distribution costs are not production costs; they are charged in the profit and loss account. The cost of production is transferred to the trading account, where it is treated like purchases and adjusted for opening and closing finished goods inventory.
Inventory valuation
The inventory teaching model here uses the lower of cost and net realisable value, consistent with the general IAS 2 overview; the target syllabus may prescribe its own detailed reporting framework. Cost includes purchase price, import duties, transport and directly attributable production overheads. Net realisable value is estimated selling price less costs to complete and sell. FIFO and weighted average cost are acceptable cost formulas; LIFO is not permitted under IFRS.
Worked example
Raw materials: opening 100,000; purchases 500,000; closing 150,000. Direct labour 300,000; factory overheads 200,000; work in progress: opening 40,000, closing 60,000.
- Materials consumed = 100,000 + 500,000 − 150,000 = 450,000.
- Prime cost = 450,000 + 300,000 = 750,000.
- Cost of production = 750,000 + 200,000 + 40,000 − 60,000 = 930,000. If 500 units cost 2,000 each but can be sold for 2,100 with selling costs of 300 per unit, NRV is 1,800, so inventory is valued at 900,000 and the loss of 100,000 is recognised.
Traps
Do not include selling and administration costs in production overheads. Closing work in progress is deducted, not added. Do not value inventory at selling price when NRV is lower than cost. Opening finished goods inventory belongs in the trading account, not the manufacturing account.
Non-current assets and depreciation
What the domain tests
You must classify capital and revenue expenditure, calculate depreciation under different methods, record disposals and part-exchange, and present non-current assets at net book value. Disposal account questions are common.
Core rules
Capital expenditure acquires or improves a non-current asset and is capitalised: purchase price, import duties, delivery, installation and testing, less trade discount. Routine repairs, maintenance, insurance and running costs are usually expensed over the relevant period; a component replacement or improvement may need different capitalization analysis under the applicable model.
Depreciation allocates the depreciable amount over useful life. Methods:
- Straight line: (cost − residual value) ÷ useful life, or a fixed percentage of cost.
- Reducing balance: a fixed percentage of the opening net book value each year.
- Units of production: depreciable amount × units used in the period ÷ total expected units.
On disposal, remove the asset cost and accumulated depreciation, record proceeds, and transfer the balance to profit and loss. Profit or loss on disposal = proceeds − net book value at disposal. In a simple part-exchange model, proceeds for the old asset are its agreed trade-in allowance. The new asset price equals that allowance plus any cash paid, before other supplied adjustments.
Worked example
A machine costs 5,000,000 FCFA, has a residual value of 500,000 and a five-year life. Straight-line depreciation is (5,000,000 − 500,000) ÷ 5 = 900,000 per year. After three years, accumulated depreciation is 2,700,000 and net book value is 2,300,000. It is sold for 2,000,000.
- Dr Disposal 5,000,000; Cr Machine 5,000,000.
- Dr Accumulated depreciation 2,700,000; Cr Disposal 2,700,000.
- Dr Bank 2,000,000; Cr Disposal 2,000,000.
- Disposal account shows a debit balance of 300,000, so Dr Profit and loss 300,000; Cr Disposal 300,000. This is a loss on disposal.
Traps
Profit on disposal is proceeds minus net book value, not minus cost. Costs of installation and delivery require the applicable asset-recognition criteria; routine repairs are generally expensed, while qualifying components or improvements can require different treatment. Reducing-balance depreciation is calculated on the opening net book value, not on cost every year. Accumulated depreciation has a credit balance and is not an asset. Do not forget depreciation for the current year before calculating the disposal profit or loss.
Cash flows and financial interpretation
What the domain tests
You must prepare a cash flow statement under operating, investing and financing headings, and calculate and interpret profitability, liquidity, efficiency and gearing ratios. The exam tests both mechanics and the story the ratios tell.
Cash flow rules
Operating activities may be presented indirectly: under the classroom convention here, operating profit before interest and tax + depreciation + loss on disposal − profit on disposal − increase in inventory + decrease in inventory − increase in receivables + decrease in receivables + increase in operating payables − decrease in operating payables. Interest and tax paid are then deducted if classified as operating. In the supplied convention, investing includes purchase and sale of non-current assets and financing includes ordinary-share issues, principal borrowings and repayments, and ordinary dividends paid. Interest/dividend classifications depend on the framework, version and entity circumstances; do not transfer one classroom choice as a universal current rule.
Cash and cash equivalents include cash, bank balances and short-term highly liquid investments. A bank overdraft is included only where it forms part of cash management and is repayable on demand.
Ratio analysis
- Profitability: gross margin, net margin, return on capital employed.
- Liquidity: current ratio, quick ratio.
- Efficiency: inventory turnover, receivable days, payable days.
- Gearing: debt ÷ equity or debt ÷ (debt + equity).
Worked example
Operating profit before interest and tax is 10,000,000; depreciation 2,000,000; receivables increased by 1,500,000; payables decreased by 500,000; interest paid 800,000; tax paid 1,200,000; equipment purchased 3,000,000; loan received 2,000,000; dividends paid 1,000,000.
- Operating cash before interest and tax = 10,000,000 + 2,000,000 − 1,500,000 − 500,000 = 10,000,000.
- Net operating cash = 10,000,000 − 800,000 − 1,200,000 = 8,000,000.
- Investing = −3,000,000. Financing = 2,000,000 − 1,000,000 = 1,000,000.
- Net increase in cash = 8,000,000 − 3,000,000 + 1,000,000 = 6,000,000.
Traps
Depreciation is added back, but profit on disposal is deducted and loss on disposal is added back. An increase in receivables reduces cash; an increase in payables increases cash. The worked example explicitly classifies ordinary dividends paid as financing; verify the convention required by the actual framework and reporting period. Do not compare ratios across firms without considering accounting policies. A high current ratio may hide slow-moving inventory.