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BY Abitur Ethics (eA) study materials
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BY Abitur Ethics (eA) practice questions

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Question 1Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Rationalismus' (rationalism), an epistemological position associated with René Descartes?

  1. The view that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of genuine knowledge Correct answer.
  2. The view that sensory experience alone, with no role for reason, is the primary source of knowledge
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A view claiming that no genuine knowledge is possible under any circumstances

Explanation

Rationalism holds that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of genuine knowledge - significantly associated with René Descartes, who emphasized innate ideas and deductive reasoning as reliable paths to certain truth.

Question 2Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Empirismus' (empiricism), an epistemological position associated with John Locke and David Hume?

  1. The view that sensory experience is the primary source of genuine knowledge Correct answer.
  2. The view that reason alone, with no role for sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A view claiming humans are born with fully formed innate knowledge of all things

Explanation

Empiricism holds that sensory experience is the primary source of genuine knowledge - significantly associated with John Locke and David Hume, who argued against innate ideas in favor of knowledge derived from observation and experience.

Question 3Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'methodischer Zweifel' (methodological doubt), a technique employed by Descartes in his 'Meditations'?

  1. A systematic process of doubting all beliefs that could conceivably be false, in order to find a foundation of absolutely certain knowledge Correct answer.
  2. A permanent state of doubting everything with no possibility of ever reaching any certain conclusion
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A technique requiring belief in every possible claim without any critical examination whatsoever

Explanation

Methodological doubt is a systematic process, employed by Descartes, of doubting all beliefs that could conceivably be false (even those seeming obviously true) in order to find a foundation of absolutely certain, indubitable knowledge upon which to rebuild reliable knowledge - culminating in his famous 'cogito ergo sum'.

Question 4Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'cogito ergo sum' ('I think, therefore I am'), Descartes's foundational certain truth discovered through methodological doubt?

  1. The realization that the very act of doubting/thinking proves the existence of a thinking self, providing an indubitable foundation for knowledge Correct answer.
  2. A claim that thinking has no connection whatsoever to proving one's own existence
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A conclusion Descartes rejected as false and unreliable

Explanation

'Cogito ergo sum' is Descartes's realization that the very act of doubting or thinking necessarily proves the existence of a thinking self (since doubt/thought cannot occur without a doubter/thinker existing), providing an indubitable foundation upon which he sought to rebuild certain knowledge.

Question 5Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Tabula Rasa' ('blank slate'), a concept associated with John Locke's empiricist theory of mind?

  1. The idea that the human mind begins entirely empty at birth, with all knowledge subsequently acquired through sensory experience Correct answer.
  2. The idea that the human mind is born fully filled with complete, innate knowledge requiring no further experience
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A concept describing only a specific type of ancient writing material, with no philosophical meaning

Explanation

'Tabula Rasa' (blank slate) is Locke's concept that the human mind begins entirely empty at birth, with all knowledge and ideas subsequently acquired through sensory experience - a foundational metaphor for empiricist epistemology, opposing rationalist claims of innate ideas.

Question 6Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Leib-Seele-Problem' (mind-body problem), a foundational question in philosophy of mind?

  1. The question of how the mind (mental, subjective experience) relates to the physical body/brain (material substance) Correct answer.
  2. A question concerning only the physical anatomy of the human body, with no connection to mental experience
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A problem that has been definitively and universally solved with complete philosophical consensus

Explanation

The mind-body problem asks how the mind (mental states, subjective experience, consciousness) relates to the physical body/brain (material substance) - a foundational question in philosophy of mind, significantly shaped by Descartes's dualist position.

Question 7Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Substanzdualismus' (substance dualism), Descartes's position on the mind-body relationship?

  1. The view that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct types of substance - mind being non-physical/thinking substance, body being physical/extended substance Correct answer.
  2. The view that mind and body are actually identical, made of exactly the same physical substance with no distinction
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A view that denies the existence of the physical body entirely

Explanation

Substance dualism, associated with Descartes, holds that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct types of substance - the mind being non-physical, thinking substance ('res cogitans'), and the body being physical, extended substance ('res extensa') - raising the significant challenge of explaining how these two distinct substances interact.

Question 8Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Materialismus' (materialism/physicalism), a position on the mind-body problem contrasting with dualism?

  1. The view that only physical matter exists, and mental states are ultimately identical to or fully explainable by physical brain processes Correct answer.
  2. The view that only mental/non-physical substance exists, with no physical reality whatsoever
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A view identical in every respect to substance dualism, with no distinguishing features

Explanation

Materialism (physicalism) holds that only physical matter exists, and mental states are ultimately identical to or fully explainable by physical brain processes - a monist position (positing only one fundamental substance type) contrasting directly with Cartesian dualism's two-substance view.

Question 9Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Qualia' (qualia), a significant concept in philosophy of mind referring to the subjective, felt quality of conscious experience?

  1. The subjective, first-person, felt qualities of conscious experience, such as the specific way redness or pain feels to the experiencing subject Correct answer.
  2. A term describing only objective, third-person, measurable physical brain states, with no subjective dimension
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A concept that applies exclusively to visual experience, never to other senses like touch or smell

Explanation

Qualia are the subjective, first-person, felt qualities of conscious experience - such as the specific way redness or pain feels to the experiencing subject - raising significant philosophical challenges about whether such subjective experience can be fully explained by objective physical/scientific description alone.

Question 10Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'personale Identität' (personal identity), a significant question in philosophical anthropology asking what makes a person the 'same' person over time?

  1. The philosophical question of what criteria determine that a person remains the same individual despite physical and psychological changes over time Correct answer.
  2. A question concerning only a person's legal documentation (passport, ID card), with no deeper philosophical content
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind or anthropology
  4. A question that has never been discussed or debated by any philosopher throughout history

Explanation

Personal identity asks what criteria determine that a person remains the 'same' individual despite significant physical and psychological changes over time (aging, changing beliefs, memory changes) - a significant philosophical anthropology question, with theories including bodily continuity, psychological/memory continuity (Locke), and others.

Question 11Moral theories andjustification

What is 'Deontologie' (deontological ethics), the ethical framework most associated with Immanuel Kant?

  1. An ethical theory judging the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to a moral duty or rule, regardless of its consequences Correct answer.
  2. An ethical theory judging actions solely by their outcomes or consequences
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. An ethical theory that denies any moral duties exist whatsoever

Explanation

Deontological ethics judges the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to a moral duty or rule, regardless of its consequences - most prominently associated with Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative.

Question 12Moral theories andjustification

What is Kant's 'kategorischer Imperativ' (categorical imperative), in its most well-known formulation?

  1. Act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law Correct answer.
  2. Act only in ways that maximize your own personal happiness, regardless of the effect on others
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. Act only according to rules explicitly established by existing civil law

Explanation

Kant's categorical imperative, in its universal law formulation, states: 'Act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law' - a test for the moral permissibility of an action based on whether its underlying principle could be consistently universalized.

Question 13Moral theories andjustification

What is the 'Selbstzweckformel' (humanity/end-in-itself formula), Kant's second major formulation of the categorical imperative?

  1. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end and never merely as a means Correct answer.
  2. Act so that you treat other people purely as tools to achieve your own personal goals
  3. A term unrelated to Kantian ethics
  4. Act so that only your own personal wellbeing matters, with others treated as irrelevant

Explanation

Kant's humanity formula states: 'Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end and never merely as a means' - emphasizing the inherent dignity and worth of persons, who should not be merely instrumentalized for others' purposes.

Question 14Moral theories andjustification

What is 'Utilitarismus' (utilitarianism), the ethical framework associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill?

  1. A consequentialist ethical theory holding that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or wellbeing for the greatest number of people Correct answer.
  2. A theory holding that only the actor's own personal happiness matters, with no regard for others
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. A theory that judges actions solely by their conformity to fixed moral duties, regardless of outcome

Explanation

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory holding that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or wellbeing for the greatest number of people ('the greatest happiness principle'), associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

Question 15Moral theories andjustification

What distinguishes 'Handlungsutilitarismus' (act utilitarianism) from 'Regelutilitarismus' (rule utilitarianism)?

  1. Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its specific consequences; rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by whether they conform to a rule that would generally maximize good consequences if followed Correct answer.
  2. Act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are identical, with no meaningful distinction between them
  3. A term unrelated to utilitarian ethical theory
  4. Rule utilitarianism rejects considering consequences entirely, focusing only on rigid duties

Explanation

Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its specific consequences in that particular situation; rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by whether they conform to a general rule that would tend to maximize good consequences if consistently followed - a significant internal distinction within utilitarian theory.

Question 16Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is 'Schwangerschaftsabbruch' (abortion) as an applied ethics topic, and a key point of philosophical contention?

  1. The moral status and rights of the fetus versus the autonomy and rights of the pregnant person, a central and contested question in applied ethics debate Correct answer.
  2. A topic with no meaningful ethical dimension or philosophical debate whatsoever
  3. A term unrelated to applied ethics
  4. A topic on which all ethical theories reach an identical, unanimous conclusion

Explanation

Abortion as an applied ethics topic centers on the contested question of the moral status and rights of the fetus (personhood, moral consideration) versus the autonomy and rights of the pregnant person - a central, actively debated question drawing on multiple ethical frameworks (deontology, consequentialism, virtue ethics).

Question 17Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is the distinction between 'aktive' (active) and 'passive Sterbehilfe' (passive euthanasia)?

  1. Active euthanasia involves deliberately taking action to end a life; passive euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, allowing death to occur Correct answer.
  2. Active and passive euthanasia refer to exactly the same practice, with no meaningful ethical or legal distinction
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. Passive euthanasia refers exclusively to euthanizing animals, never humans

Explanation

Active euthanasia involves deliberately taking action (e.g., administering a lethal substance) to end a life; passive euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, allowing death to occur naturally - a distinction with significant ethical and legal implications in different jurisdictions.

Question 18Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is a key ethical concern raised regarding 'Gentechnik' (genetic engineering) technologies like CRISPR gene editing?

  1. Concerns about unintended consequences, equitable access, and the ethical limits of altering human genetic makeup, including questions of consent for future generations Correct answer.
  2. A concern that genetic engineering technology does not actually exist and is purely science fiction
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. A universal agreement among all ethicists that genetic engineering has no ethical concerns whatsoever

Explanation

Key ethical concerns regarding genetic engineering (like CRISPR) include unintended consequences, equitable access to the technology, and the ethical limits of altering human genetic makeup - including consent questions for future generations who cannot consent to inherited genetic changes.

Question 19Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is the ethical debate between 'Widerspruchslösung' (opt-out) and 'Zustimmungslösung' (opt-in) systems for organ donation?

  1. Opt-out systems presume consent to donation unless a person explicitly registers refusal; opt-in systems require explicit registered consent before donation is permitted Correct answer.
  2. Opt-out and opt-in systems are functionally and ethically identical, with no meaningful difference
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. Opt-out systems make organ donation illegal under all circumstances

Explanation

Opt-out (Widerspruchslösung) systems presume consent to organ donation unless a person explicitly registers their refusal; opt-in (Zustimmungslösung) systems require explicit, registered consent before donation is permitted - a significant policy and ethical debate concerning autonomy, presumed consent, and organ shortage.

Question 20Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is 'Speziesismus' (speciesism), a concept introduced by philosopher Peter Singer relevant to animal ethics?

  1. The unjustified assignment of different moral status or consideration to beings based solely on their species membership Correct answer.
  2. A term describing the scientific classification of different animal species, with no ethical content
  3. A term unrelated to applied ethics
  4. A concept that applies exclusively to plants, never to animals

Explanation

Speciesism, a term popularized by philosopher Peter Singer, describes the unjustified assignment of different moral status or consideration to beings based solely on their species membership - analogous to other forms of unjustified discrimination like racism or sexism, according to Singer's critique.

Question 21Moral theories andjustification

Plato's Idea of the Good functions in ethical theory primarily as...

  1. the highest measure by which particular virtues and just institutions are oriented Correct answer.
  2. a catalogue of consumer preferences in the marketplace
  3. a refusal to rank any ends as better than others
  4. a claim that only pleasure can be intrinsically valuable

Explanation

In Plato, the Idea of the Good is the supreme orientation for knowledge and virtue; particular goods and political arrangements are judged by their participation in it. It is not hedonism, preference listing, or value relativism.

Question 22Moral theories andjustification

Aristotle's doctrine of the mean (Mesotes) holds that moral virtue typically...

  1. lies in a context-sensitive intermediate between excess and deficiency Correct answer.
  2. always requires maximizing total pleasure for everyone
  3. consists solely in obeying a formal duty independent of character
  4. is identical with legal compliance under positive law

Explanation

Aristotelian ethische Tugend is a hexis that hits the mean relative to us - courage between cowardice and recklessness. It is character-centered and situational, not pure hedonism, pure deontology, or mere legality.

Question 23Moral theories andjustification

Kant's Grundformel of the categorical imperative requires that you act only on maxims that...

  1. you can will as a universal law for all rational agents Correct answer.
  2. maximize your personal advantage in the short term
  3. match the customs of your immediate peer group
  4. produce the greatest aggregate happiness in this particular case

Explanation

The universal-law formula tests whether a maxim can be willed without contradiction as a law for all. It is deontological: rightness tracks universalizability of the maxim, not personal gain, local custom, or case-by-case utility.

Question 24Moral theories andjustification

Kant's Formula of Humanity (Selbstzweckformel) forbids treating persons merely as...

  1. means to an end, without also respecting them as ends in themselves Correct answer.
  2. citizens who may vote in elections
  3. beings who ever experience pleasure or pain
  4. members of any particular nation-state

Explanation

The Selbstzweckformel demands that humanity in oneself and others never be used merely as a means. Instrumental use is allowed only when the person's dignity as an end is simultaneously respected (e.g., fair contracts).

Question 25Moral theories andjustification

Classical act utilitarianism judges an action by...

  1. whether its consequences produce the greatest overall happiness or preference satisfaction Correct answer.
  2. whether its maxim can be universalized as a law of nature
  3. whether it expresses a virtuous character trait of the agent
  4. whether it matches revealed religious commandments

Explanation

Act utilitarianism is consequentialist: the right act is the one with best overall outcomes (happiness/preferences). Universalizability is Kantian; character is Aristotelian; divine command is a different foundation.

Question 26Moral theories andjustification

Rule utilitarianism differs from act utilitarianism mainly by...

  1. evaluating the utility of adopting general rules rather than calculating each single act in isolation Correct answer.
  2. denying that happiness has any moral relevance
  3. requiring that every rule be willed as a Kantian duty
  4. restricting moral concern to the agent's own family only

Explanation

Rule utilitarianism asks which rules, if generally followed, would maximize utility, then judges acts by those rules. It remains utilitarian (happiness-relevant) and is not automatically Kantian or egoistically restricted.

Question 27Moral theories andjustification

A common Leistungsfach-level criticism of act utilitarianism is that it may...

  1. justify sacrificing an innocent person if that somehow maximizes total utility Correct answer.
  2. forbid all calculation of consequences under any circumstances
  3. require agents never to consider other people's welfare
  4. collapse into Plato's theory of Forms without remainder

Explanation

Critics argue that pure act utilitarianism can license rights violations when aggregate utility rises. It does not forbid consequence-calculation; it centers it. It is impartial, not egoistic, and is not a Platonist metaphysics.

Question 28Moral theories andjustification

Habermas's discourse ethics locates moral validity primarily in...

  1. norms that could win uncoerced agreement in an ideal discourse among those affected Correct answer.
  2. the private conscience of a solitary ruler
  3. the maximization of GDP as a proxy for the good
  4. the unexamined traditions of a closed community

Explanation

Diskursethik treats justified norms as those that participants could accept under conditions of free, equal, and informed argumentation. It opposes authoritarian fiat, crude economic reduction, and uncritical traditionalism.

Question 29Moral theories andjustification

In discourse ethics, a herrschaftsfreier Diskurs ideally excludes...

  1. coercion, manipulation, and exclusion that block equal participation Correct answer.
  2. all disagreement about normative claims
  3. any reference to empirical facts
  4. the possibility of revising one's initial opinion

Explanation

Herrschaftsfreiheit means power asymmetries should not distort who may speak and be heard. Disagreement, facts, and opinion-revision are all part of genuine discourse; coercion and manipulation are what must be excluded.

Question 30Moral theories andjustification

Hans Jonas's Verantwortungsethik emphasizes especially our responsibility toward...

  1. future generations and the long-term vulnerability of the living world Correct answer.
  2. only face-to-face promises among present adults
  3. maximizing quarterly profits for shareholders
  4. obeying any positive law regardless of consequences

Explanation

Jonas extends ethics beyond near-range interpersonal duties (Nahbereich) to Fernethik: technological power creates duties to the future of humanity and nature. Profit-maximization and blind legalism are not his criteria.

Question 31Moral theories andjustification

Jonas's Heuristik der Furcht recommends that in high-stakes technological decisions we should...

  1. give special weight to credible worst-case scenarios that threaten the future of humanity Correct answer.
  2. ignore all risks whenever innovation promises short-term convenience
  3. treat every fear as equally decisive without evidence
  4. ban all technology because fear alone is a moral absolute

Explanation

The Heuristik der Furcht is a precautionary priority for serious existential risks under uncertainty - not reckless optimism, not panic without standards, and not a total ban on technology.

Question 32Moral theories andjustification

Compared with classical utilitarianism, Jonas's responsibility ethics is more focused on...

  1. preserving the long-term conditions for human life under technological power Correct answer.
  2. maximizing immediate pleasure for the greatest number here and now
  3. denying that consequences matter at all
  4. reducing ethics to etiquette in salon conversation

Explanation

Jonas shares a concern with consequences but orients them toward the continued possibility of responsible life, especially under modern tech. He is not short-term hedonism, pure deontology denying consequences, or etiquette.

Question 33Moral theories andjustification

Aristotle distinguishes dianoetic (intellectual) virtues from ethical virtues mainly to highlight that...

  1. practical wisdom and character excellence are related but not identical excellences Correct answer.
  2. only mathematical skill counts as moral virtue
  3. ethical virtue requires no habituation at all
  4. intellectual virtues replace the need for any moral character

Explanation

Dianoetische Tugenden (e.g. phronesis) perfect intellectual capacities; ethische Tugenden perfect character through habituation. Phronesis links them, but they are not collapsed into math skill or into characterless intellect.

Question 34Moral theories andjustification

At Leistungsfach level: Kant locates moral worth primarily in the good will acting from duty, whereas Aristotle locates flourishing primarily in...

  1. stable excellent activity of the soul in accordance with virtue over a complete life Correct answer.
  2. a single isolated maxim that never becomes habitual
  3. the mere possession of external goods without activity
  4. obedience to the categorical imperative alone

Explanation

Aristotelian eudaimonia is excellent activity (energeia) in accordance with virtue across a life. Kant centers the good will and duty; Aristotle centers formed character and activity, not CI obedience as his primary frame.

Question 35Moral theories andjustification

Preference utilitarianism revises classical hedonistic utilitarianism by measuring utility primarily in terms of...

  1. the satisfaction of informed preferences or interests rather than only felt pleasure Correct answer.
  2. the number of laws a society has enacted
  3. the beauty of an agent's motives irrespective of outcomes
  4. the rank of the agent in a social hierarchy

Explanation

Preference utilitarianism shifts from pleasure/pain sensation to preference satisfaction (often idealized). It remains outcome-focused, not legalist, motive-aesthetic, or hierarchical.

Question 36Moral theories andjustification

In Plato's psychology relevant to ethics, injustice in the soul is pictured as...

  1. discord among reason, spirit, and appetite when reason fails to rule appropriately Correct answer.
  2. perfect harmony among all desires without any ordering principle
  3. the mere absence of written laws in a city
  4. a temporary medical fever with no moral meaning

Explanation

Plato's tripartite soul model treats justice as proper order (reason guiding spirit and appetite) and injustice as internal stasis/discord. City laws and medical metaphors may illustrate but do not replace this psychic account.

Question 37Moral theories andjustification

The four cardinal virtues in the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition typically include...

  1. wisdom (prudence), courage, temperance, and justice Correct answer.
  2. irony, sarcasm, nostalgia, and ambition
  3. GDP growth, market share, branding, and disruption
  4. obedience, silence, secrecy, and flattery

Explanation

The classical Kardinaltugenden are wisdom/prudence, courage, temperance, and justice - a core LehrplanPLUS reference point for virtue ethics.

Question 38Moral theories andjustification

A maxim fails Kant's universalizability test when...

  1. its universal adoption would generate a contradiction in conception or in the will Correct answer.
  2. it happens to be unpopular on social media this week
  3. it requires any effort from the agent
  4. it concerns only the agent's private diary with no interpersonal effects

Explanation

Kantian failure modes are contradiction in conception (the maxim's universal form is incoherent) or contradiction in the will (you cannot rationally will the universalized world). Popularity, effort, and privacy alone are not the test.

Question 39Moral theories andjustification

Which pairing best matches theory to primary evaluative focus?

  1. Virtue ethics -> character; Kant -> maxim/duty; utilitarianism -> consequences Correct answer.
  2. Virtue ethics -> GDP; Kant -> pleasure totals; utilitarianism -> Forms
  3. Virtue ethics -> statutes only; Kant -> market prices; utilitarianism -> etiquette
  4. Virtue ethics -> fear alone; Kant -> future tech only; utilitarianism -> soul tripartition

Explanation

This is the standard comparative grid for eA: character vs. duty/maxim vs. outcomes. The other options scramble unrelated criteria.

Question 40Moral theories andjustification

Discourse ethics is often classified as a cognitivist, deontological approach because it...

  1. treats moral norms as justifiable through reasons, not as mere taste, via fair argumentation procedures Correct answer.
  2. reduces all moral claims to irrational emotion
  3. identifies morality with the maximization of preference utility alone
  4. rejects any distinction between better and worse arguments

Explanation

Habermas defends moral cognitivism: norms can be right or wrong based on reasons tested in discourse. It is procedural-deontological rather than emotivist, purely utilitarian, or argument-skeptical.

Question 41Moral theories andjustification

Nahbereich vs. Fernbereich in Jonas-oriented teaching contrasts...

  1. immediate interpersonal duties with long-range responsibilities opened by modern technology Correct answer.
  2. indoor vs. outdoor sports ethics only
  3. national vs. municipal parking fines
  4. aesthetic taste vs. fashion trends

Explanation

Jonas argues classical ethics centered the near range of contemporaries, while technological power forces ethics to address distant future effects (Fernethik).

Question 42Moral theories andjustification

A strong eA evaluation of Kantian ethics should acknowledge both that it powerfully protects dignity and that it may struggle with...

  1. conflicts of duty and the moral relevance of consequences in complex cases Correct answer.
  2. any notion of universal human dignity whatsoever
  3. the idea that persons can be ends in themselves
  4. the claim that maxims can be formulated at all

Explanation

Fair AFB-III critique keeps Kant's dignity strength while noting duty conflicts and limited room for consequence-weighing. It does not deny dignity, ends-in-themselves, or maxim-formulation as Kantian resources.

Question 43Moral theories andjustification

Aristotle's voluntary action (hekousion) is ethically central because...

  1. praise and blame presuppose that the agent acted knowingly and without compulsion in the relevant sense Correct answer.
  2. only involuntary reflexes can be virtuous
  3. responsibility attaches solely to what happens during sleep
  4. ethical evaluation ignores knowledge and compulsion entirely

Explanation

Aristotle ties moral assessment to voluntariness: knowledge of particulars and absence of force/ignorance conditions. Reflexes and sleep undercut responsibility; knowledge/compulsion are ethically decisive.

Question 44Moral theories andjustification

In comparative eA work, Diskursethik and utilitarianism can conflict when...

  1. a utility-maximizing policy would be rejected by those affected under fair discourse conditions Correct answer.
  2. both theories always recommend identical policies in every case
  3. discourse ethics refuses to allow any discussion of consequences
  4. utilitarianism forbids counting anyone's interests

Explanation

A policy might raise aggregate utility yet fail legitimacy if affected persons could not accept it in uncoerced discourse (e.g., rights trade-offs). The theories do not always coincide; discourse can include consequence claims; utilitarianism counts interests.

Question 45Moral theories andjustification

Plato's cardinal virtue of justice (dikaiosyne) in the soul is best glossed as...

  1. each part doing its proper work under the guidance of reason Correct answer.
  2. maximizing consumer choice without limit
  3. the art of winning every rhetorical contest
  4. indifference to how psychic parts relate

Explanation

Psychic justice is functional order: reason rules, spirit supports, appetite is moderated. It is not market libertarianism, sophistry, or indifference to internal order.

Question 46Moral theories andjustification

A candidate applying Verantwortungsethik to AI deployment should especially ask...

  1. what irreversible long-term risks to human future and biosphere the technology may create Correct answer.
  2. only whether the product launch increases next quarter's clicks
  3. whether the code style matches current fashion in software blogs
  4. whether any single user felt briefly amused

Explanation

Jonas-style evaluation prioritizes civilizational and ecological stakes under uncertainty. Quarterly metrics, fashion, and fleeting amusement miss Fernverantwortung.

Question 47Applied ethics andresponsibility

Bereichsethiken in Ethik eA (Eth12 1.2) are best described as...

  1. fields where general ethical theories are applied to concrete domains such as bio-, media-, tech-, or economic ethics Correct answer.
  2. a replacement for all normative theories so that principles become unnecessary
  3. purely empirical surveys with no normative dimension
  4. only the history of ancient myths without contemporary cases

Explanation

LehrplanPLUS eA adds Moralisches Urteil in den Bereichsethiken: transfer of normative tools to domains (Medien-, Bio-, Wirtschafts-, Technikethik) via structured judgment steps.

Question 48Applied ethics andresponsibility

A typical first step in structured ethical case judgment (Urteilsfindung) is to...

  1. clarify the facts of the situation and identify affected parties and conflicts Correct answer.
  2. announce a verdict before examining any details
  3. delete all empirical information as irrelevant
  4. choose the option that trends best on social media

Explanation

Sound applied judgment begins with Sachebene: facts, stakeholders, and conflict structure. Premature verdicts, fact-deletion, and trend-chasing undermine Begründung.

Question 49Applied ethics andresponsibility

In bioethics, the four principles approach (Beauchamp/Childress) prominently includes...

  1. respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice Correct answer.
  2. irony, nostalgia, branding, and disruption
  3. GDP, inflation, tariffs, and deficits only
  4. secrecy, speed, spectacle, and scandal

Explanation

The widely taught American model principles are autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice - a LehrplanPLUS-relevant toolkit for Medizinethik cases.

Question 50Applied ethics andresponsibility

A Sein-Sollen fallacy in applied ethics occurs when someone...

  1. infers a moral ought solely from a descriptive is without further normative premises Correct answer.
  2. carefully states both facts and explicit value premises
  3. asks whether a policy respects human dignity
  4. compares two normative theories on a case

Explanation

Hume's gap: facts alone do not yield norms. Good argumentation makes value premises explicit rather than smuggling them from description.