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HKDSE Geography study materials
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HKDSE Geography practice questions

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Question 1Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

On a map, the ratio 1:50,000 is an example of which type of scale?

  1. Verbal scale
  2. Graphic (bar) scale
  3. Nominal scale
  4. Representative fraction scale Correct answer.

Explanation

A representative fraction (RF) expresses scale as a ratio such as 1:50,000, meaning one unit on the map equals 50,000 of the same units on the ground. It is unitless, so it works for any measurement system. A verbal scale states the relationship in words, and a graphic scale uses a marked bar.

Question 2Physical geography and earth-surface processes

A deep ocean trench, frequent earthquakes, and a volcanic mountain arc are most characteristic of which plate boundary?

  1. Divergent boundary
  2. Transform boundary
  3. Hotspot far from any boundary
  4. Convergent (subduction) boundary Correct answer.

Explanation

At a convergent boundary where an oceanic plate subducts beneath another plate, a deep trench forms at the subduction line, and melting of the descending slab feeds a volcanic arc. The Andes and the Japanese island arc are examples.

Question 3Climate systems and environmental change

Which statement about the Equator's climate is most accurate?

  1. It experiences four distinct temperate seasons
  2. It is dominated by polar high pressure and aridity
  3. It has the largest annual temperature range on Earth
  4. It receives relatively consistent, high solar energy year-round, producing warm temperatures Correct answer.

Explanation

Near the Equator the Sun's rays strike at a high angle throughout the year, delivering consistently high insolation. This produces warm temperatures with small annual variation; in humid equatorial regions it also produces year-round rainfall and rainforest vegetation.

Question 4Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

In a developing river meander bend, where do lateral erosion and sediment deposition predominantly take place?

  1. Erosion on the inner convex bank; Deposition on the outer concave bank
  2. Erosion on the outer concave bank; Deposition on the inner convex bank (slip-off slope) Correct answer.
  3. Erosion across both banks equally; Deposition only on the river bed centre
  4. Deposition along the outer bank; Zero erosion anywhere along the bend

Explanation

In a meander, helicoidal water flow travels fastest on the outside of the bend (outer concave bank), creating lateral erosion and forming a steep river cliff. Water flows slowest on the inside of the bend (inner convex bank), reducing energy and depositing sand/gravel to form a gently sloping slip-off slope (point bar).

Question 5Population, cities, economic location and development

In the demographic transition model, a country with high birth rates and rapidly declining death rates, producing very high population growth, is in which stage?

  1. Stage 1
  2. Stage 4
  3. Stage 5
  4. Stage 2 Correct answer.

Explanation

Stage 2 of the demographic transition model features continued high birth rates but sharply falling death rates due to improvements in food supply, sanitation, and medicine. This gap produces the most rapid natural population increase.

Question 6Resources, environment and sustainability

Overdrawing groundwater from an aquifer faster than it recharges most directly leads to

  1. falling water tables, well failure, and possible land subsidence Correct answer.
  2. rising water tables and flooding
  3. increased rainfall in the region
  4. the formation of new mountains

Explanation

When groundwater is pumped faster than natural recharge, the water table drops, wells can run dry, pumping costs rise, and in some areas the land surface subsides. This is a major sustainability concern for aquifers like the Ogallala.

Question 7Regional comparison and territorial scales

A region develops specialty fruit farming because of unique climate, brand reputation, and transport to cities. This best illustrates:

  1. Using regional comparative advantages Correct answer.
  2. Ignoring all market demand
  3. A purely random land-use choice
  4. The absence of human-environment interaction

Explanation

Regional development often builds on local physical and human advantages. Climate, branding, and market access combine to create a competitive specialty sector.

Question 8Physical geography and earth-surface processes

In the HKDSE Geography module 'Opportunities and Risks', which type of plate boundary is responsible for the formation of fold mountains such as the Andes?

  1. Destructive (convergent) boundary Correct answer.
  2. Conservative (transform) boundary
  3. Constructive (divergent) boundary
  4. Passive continental margin

Explanation

Fold mountains like the Andes form at destructive (convergent) boundaries where an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate, compressing and uplifting sediments. The Nazca Plate subducting under the South American Plate created the Andes.

Question 9Physical geography and earth-surface processes

At a constructive plate boundary on a mid-ocean ridge, which landform is most characteristically produced?

  1. Ocean trench
  2. Rift valley and new oceanic crust Correct answer.
  3. Fold mountains
  4. Tsunami deposit

Explanation

At constructive (divergent) boundaries, plates move apart and magma rises to form new oceanic crust, creating a central rift valley along the mid-ocean ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the classic example.

Question 10Physical geography and earth-surface processes

The San Andreas Fault in California is best described as which type of plate boundary?

  1. Destructive boundary with subduction
  2. Constructive boundary
  3. Conservative (transform) boundary Correct answer.
  4. Collision boundary forming fold mountains

Explanation

The San Andreas Fault is a conservative (transform) boundary where the Pacific Plate and North American Plate slide horizontally past each other. Friction along the locked fault builds stress that is released as earthquakes, but no crust is created or destroyed.

Question 11Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which term describes the point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates and energy is first released?

  1. Epicentre
  2. Seismic gap
  3. Fault scarp
  4. Focus (hypocentre) Correct answer.

Explanation

The focus (or hypocentre) is the point within the crust where rock first fractures and seismic energy is released. The epicentre is the point on the surface directly above the focus.

Question 12Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Why do destructive plate boundaries with deep ocean trenches frequently generate tsunamis?

  1. Sudden vertical displacement of the seabed during megathrust earthquakes displaces a large volume of water Correct answer.
  2. The horizontal sliding of plates pushes water sideways
  3. Volcanic gases dissolve and lower sea level rapidly
  4. Tidal forces are amplified above subduction zones

Explanation

At subduction zones, the locked plate boundary slips suddenly in a megathrust earthquake, vertically displacing the overlying seabed and the entire water column above it. This generates the long-wavelength waves of a tsunami.

Question 13Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which of the following is an example of an opportunity that attracts people to live in a hazard-prone volcanic area?

  1. High risk of pyroclastic flows
  2. Fertile volcanic soils suitable for agriculture Correct answer.
  3. Frequent seismic shaking
  4. Toxic gas emissions

Explanation

Weathered volcanic ash and lava break down into mineral-rich, fertile soils that support productive farming, drawing dense populations to volcanic slopes despite the danger. Geothermal energy and tourism are further opportunities.

Question 14Physical geography and earth-surface processes

A volcano with steep sides built from thick, viscous, silica-rich (acidic) lava and explosive eruptions is classified as a:

  1. Shield volcano
  2. Cinder cone only
  3. Composite (stratovolcano) Correct answer.
  4. Fissure volcano

Explanation

Composite or stratovolcanoes are built from alternating layers of viscous acidic lava and pyroclastic material, giving steep concave slopes and violent eruptions. Mount Fuji and Mount St Helens are examples.

Question 15Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which scale measures the energy released by an earthquake (its magnitude) rather than the damage felt at the surface?

  1. Modified Mercalli scale
  2. Saffir-Simpson scale
  3. Beaufort scale
  4. Moment magnitude / Richter scale Correct answer.

Explanation

The Richter and the more modern moment magnitude scales quantify the energy released at the focus, giving a single magnitude value. The Modified Mercalli scale instead records intensity, the observed effects and damage at a location.

Question 16Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Why do earthquakes in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) often cause higher death tolls than equally strong earthquakes in more developed countries?

  1. Poor building standards, weak emergency services and dense low-quality housing increase vulnerability Correct answer.
  2. LEDCs sit on stronger faults
  3. LEDCs always have deeper earthquake foci
  4. Earthquakes are physically stronger near the Equator

Explanation

Vulnerability is largely socio-economic: in LEDCs, non-reinforced buildings collapse, building codes are poorly enforced, and limited rescue and medical services slow response. The same magnitude in a richer country with earthquake-resistant design causes fewer deaths.

Question 17Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which of the following is a structural (engineering) measure to reduce earthquake damage rather than a preparedness measure?

  1. Holding earthquake drills in schools
  2. Building flexible, base-isolated structures Correct answer.
  3. Issuing public hazard education leaflets
  4. Stockpiling food and water at home

Explanation

Base isolation and flexible frames allow buildings to absorb and dissipate seismic energy, reducing structural collapse. Drills, education and stockpiling are preparedness measures that improve human response but do not strengthen buildings.

Question 18Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Tropical cyclones (typhoons) require which set of conditions to form and intensify?

  1. Cold sea water below 20 degrees Celsius and strong wind shear
  2. Dry descending air over land
  3. Warm ocean water above about 26.5 degrees Celsius, latent heat release and low wind shear Correct answer.
  4. Polar front along the jet stream

Explanation

Typhoons draw energy from sea-surface temperatures above roughly 26.5 degrees Celsius; evaporation and condensation release latent heat that powers the storm, while low vertical wind shear lets the structure stay organised. The Coriolis effect provides the spin.

Question 19Physical geography and earth-surface processes

In a mature tropical cyclone, the calm, cloud-free centre with descending air and the lowest pressure is called the:

  1. Eye wall
  2. Outflow
  3. Rain band
  4. Eye Correct answer.

Explanation

The eye is the central region of a cyclone where air gently subsides, producing clear skies, light winds and the lowest atmospheric pressure. It is surrounded by the eye wall, where the most violent winds and heaviest rain occur.

Question 20Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which destructive impact of a typhoon is caused mainly by strong onshore winds pushing seawater against a coastline, often worsened at high tide?

  1. Storm surge Correct answer.
  2. Lahar
  3. Liquefaction
  4. Avalanche

Explanation

A storm surge is an abnormal rise in sea level driven by a cyclone's winds and low pressure forcing water onshore, causing severe coastal flooding. It is one of the deadliest hazards of typhoons in low-lying coastal areas.

Question 21Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which combination of natural and human factors most commonly triggers landslides on the steep slopes of Hong Kong?

  1. Low rainfall and gentle gradients
  2. Intense rainstorms saturating regolith plus slope cutting for development Correct answer.
  3. Cold dry winters and afforestation
  4. Tidal action at the coast

Explanation

Heavy rainstorms raise pore-water pressure and reduce shear strength in the weathered regolith, while cutting steep slopes for buildings and roads removes lateral support. Together these natural and human factors trigger landslides on Hong Kong's hilly terrain.

Question 22Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which engineering method is widely used in Hong Kong to stabilise slopes by reducing the build-up of water pressure within them?

  1. Adding heavy concrete blocks to the slope toe only
  2. Increasing the slope gradient
  3. Installing horizontal sub-surface drains (raking drains) Correct answer.
  4. Removing all vegetation

Explanation

Horizontal sub-surface (raking) drains lower the groundwater table within a slope, reducing pore-water pressure that would otherwise weaken the soil and trigger failure. Soil nailing and surface shotcrete are other common Hong Kong slope-management measures.

Question 23Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Most of the world's active volcanoes and earthquakes are concentrated around the rim of which ocean, an area known as the 'Ring of Fire'?

  1. Atlantic Ocean
  2. Arctic Ocean
  3. Indian Ocean
  4. Pacific Ocean Correct answer.

Explanation

The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped belt of subduction zones and plate boundaries around the Pacific Ocean, where about three-quarters of the world's volcanoes and most large earthquakes occur. It includes Japan, the Philippines and the western Americas.

Question 24Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Slab pull and ridge push are mechanisms that help drive:

  1. The movement of tectonic plates Correct answer.
  2. The rotation of the Earth
  3. Ocean tides
  4. The seasons

Explanation

Plate motion is driven by mantle convection together with slab pull, where a dense subducting slab drags the rest of the plate, and ridge push, where new elevated crust at ridges slides outward. These forces move the rigid lithospheric plates.

Question 25Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Liquefaction, a hazard during strong earthquakes, occurs when:

  1. Lava melts surrounding rock
  2. Shaking causes saturated, loose sediment to lose strength and behave like a liquid Correct answer.
  3. Heavy rain dissolves limestone
  4. Salt water evaporates from the soil

Explanation

During intense shaking, water-saturated loose sand and silt lose grain-to-grain contact and temporarily behave like a fluid, so buildings can sink or tilt. Liquefaction greatly increases earthquake damage on reclaimed or alluvial ground.

Question 26Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Why is the Pearl River Delta region, including Hong Kong, particularly exposed to typhoon impacts between roughly May and November?

  1. Cold ocean currents dominate then
  2. Typhoons only form over land in winter
  3. Warm sea-surface temperatures in the South China Sea and western Pacific allow tropical cyclones to form and track toward the coast Correct answer.
  4. The region lies outside any cyclone track

Explanation

From late spring to autumn the South China Sea and western North Pacific are warm enough to spawn and sustain typhoons, many of which track northwest toward the South China coast. This is the typhoon season for Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta.

Question 27Physical geography and earth-surface processes

Which mass-movement type involves the rapid downslope flow of a saturated mixture of soil, rock and water, common on Hong Kong's slopes after intense rain?

  1. Soil creep
  2. Rotational slump only
  3. Rockfall of dry blocks
  4. Debris flow (mudflow) Correct answer.

Explanation

A debris flow is a fast, fluid downslope movement of saturated soil, rock and water that can travel rapidly down channels and cause serious damage. Intense rainstorms on Hong Kong's steep weathered slopes are a frequent trigger.

Question 28Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

In the upper course of a river, which process is dominant and produces a characteristic landform?

  1. Lateral erosion forming wide floodplains
  2. Longshore drift forming a spit
  3. Deposition forming a delta
  4. Vertical (downward) erosion forming a steep V-shaped valley Correct answer.

Explanation

In the upper course the river has steep gradient and high turbulence, so vertical erosion cuts downward to form a narrow, steep-sided V-shaped valley with interlocking spurs. Lateral erosion and deposition dominate further downstream.

Question 29Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Which fluvial process involves the river wearing away its bed and banks by the impact and grinding of the sediment load it carries?

  1. Abrasion (corrasion) Correct answer.
  2. Hydraulic action
  3. Solution (corrosion)
  4. Attrition

Explanation

Abrasion (corrasion) occurs when the river's load of pebbles and sand scrapes and grinds against the bed and banks, wearing them down. It is the main mechanical erosion process carving river channels.

Question 30Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

A waterfall in a river's course commonly forms where:

  1. The river flows over a band of soft rock lying beside hard rock that erodes faster
  2. A resistant (hard) rock band overlies softer rock that is eroded more rapidly, undercutting it Correct answer.
  3. The river meets the sea at a delta
  4. Two tributaries join at a confluence

Explanation

A waterfall develops where a resistant rock band lies over softer rock; the soft rock is eroded faster, undercutting the hard cap rock until it collapses. Repeated collapse causes the waterfall to retreat upstream, leaving a gorge.

Question 31Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

An ox-bow lake is formed when:

  1. A delta is split by distributaries
  2. A waterfall retreats to form a gorge
  3. A meander neck is cut through during a flood, and the old loop is sealed off by deposition Correct answer.
  4. Longshore drift extends a beach

Explanation

As a meander loop becomes increasingly curved, erosion narrows the neck until, often during a flood, the river cuts straight across it. Deposition then seals off the abandoned loop, leaving a crescent-shaped ox-bow lake.

Question 32Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

On the outer bank of a river meander, the water is deepest and fastest, producing which feature?

  1. A point bar of deposited sand
  2. A braided channel
  3. A levee built by overbank deposition
  4. A river cliff caused by erosion (undercutting) Correct answer.

Explanation

On a meander's outer bank, the thalweg (fastest flow) hugs the bank and erodes it, undercutting to create a steep river cliff. On the inner bank, slower water deposits sediment as a gently sloping point bar (slip-off slope).

Question 33Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Which depositional landform is created where a river deposits its sediment load as it enters a calm body of water such as a sea or lake?

  1. Delta Correct answer.
  2. Gorge
  3. Plunge pool
  4. Arete

Explanation

A delta forms at a river mouth where reduced velocity and flocculation cause the river to drop its sediment faster than it can be removed, building up distributaries and depositional lobes. The Nile and Mississippi deltas are classic examples.

Question 34Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

The process by which waves transport sediment along a coast in a zig-zag motion, driven by the angle of the prevailing wind, is called:

  1. Saltation
  2. Longshore drift Correct answer.
  3. Solifluction
  4. Plucking

Explanation

Longshore drift moves beach material along the coast as the swash carries it up the beach at the angle of the waves, while the backwash drags it straight down under gravity, producing a net zig-zag transport. It builds spits and bars.

Question 35Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Which sequence correctly shows the evolution of coastal erosion landforms on a headland?

  1. Stack then stump then arch then cave
  2. Spit then tombolo then bar
  3. Crack then cave then arch then stack then stump Correct answer.
  4. Levee then floodplain then delta

Explanation

Wave erosion exploits a crack in a headland, enlarging it into a cave; the cave is cut through to form an arch; the arch roof collapses to leave a stack; and continued erosion reduces the stack to a low stump. This is a key coastal sequence.

Question 36Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

A spit is best defined as:

  1. A vertical column of rock isolated by wave erosion
  2. An eroded notch at the base of a cliff
  3. A bay-mouth bar that fully seals off a lagoon
  4. A long, narrow ridge of sand or shingle deposited where the coastline changes direction, with one end joined to land Correct answer.

Explanation

A spit is an elongated depositional ridge built by longshore drift where the coast bends or a river mouth interrupts the shore; one end is attached to land and the free end often curves landward (a recurved spit). A salt marsh may develop in the sheltered water behind it.

Question 37Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Which coastal management strategy is considered a 'hard engineering' approach?

  1. Building a concrete sea wall Correct answer.
  2. Beach nourishment
  3. Managed retreat
  4. Planting mangroves

Explanation

Hard engineering uses artificial structures to resist the sea; a concrete sea wall reflects wave energy and protects the land behind it. Beach nourishment, managed retreat and mangrove planting are soft-engineering approaches that work with natural processes.

Question 38Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Why can building a groyne to trap sand on one beach create erosion problems further along the coast?

  1. Groynes increase wave height offshore
  2. Groynes interrupt longshore drift, starving down-drift beaches of sediment Correct answer.
  3. Groynes raise sea level locally
  4. Groynes dissolve the underlying rock

Explanation

A groyne traps sediment moving by longshore drift on its up-drift side, widening that beach. Beaches further down-drift are then deprived of their normal sediment supply, so they narrow and erode faster, a problem called terminal scour.

Question 39Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

The transport of fine sediment held within the body of river water, giving it a cloudy appearance, is known as:

  1. Suspension Correct answer.
  2. Traction
  3. Saltation
  4. Solution

Explanation

Suspension is the transport of fine clay and silt particles held up within the turbulent flow of the water, making the river look muddy. Traction rolls large material along the bed, saltation bounces sand, and solution carries dissolved minerals.

Question 40Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

A floodplain is best described as:

  1. A steep V-shaped valley in the upper course
  2. A flat area beside a river in its lower course, built up by repeated deposition of sediment during floods Correct answer.
  3. The deep pool at the foot of a waterfall
  4. A coastal bar of shingle

Explanation

A floodplain is the wide, flat valley floor in a river's lower course formed by deposition of alluvium when the river overflows its banks. Repeated flooding leaves fertile sediment, making floodplains valuable farmland.

Question 41Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Constructive waves differ from destructive waves in that constructive waves:

  1. Have a stronger backwash than swash and erode beaches
  2. Only occur during storms
  3. Have a stronger swash than backwash and build up beaches by deposition Correct answer.
  4. Always remove all beach material

Explanation

Constructive waves are low, gently spilling waves whose strong swash pushes material up the beach while the weak backwash leaves it there, so the beach grows. Destructive waves are tall and frequent with a dominant backwash that drags sediment seaward.

Question 42Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

A wave-cut platform is formed when:

  1. A river deposits silt at its mouth
  2. Ice grinds a U-shaped valley
  3. Sand is blown inland to form dunes
  4. Waves erode the base of a cliff, the cliff retreats, and a gently sloping rocky surface is left at its foot Correct answer.

Explanation

Waves cut a notch at the cliff base; the undercut cliff collapses and retreats, leaving behind a gently sloping rock surface exposed at low tide, the wave-cut platform. It widens as the cliff continues to retreat landward.

Question 43Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Mangroves and salt marshes provide natural coastal protection mainly because they:

  1. Trap sediment and dissipate wave energy, stabilising the shoreline Correct answer.
  2. Increase wave energy reaching the shore
  3. Raise sea level locally
  4. Prevent rivers from depositing sediment

Explanation

The dense roots and stems of mangroves and salt marshes slow water flow, trap sediment and absorb much of the incoming wave energy, reducing erosion and buffering the coast against storms. They are a key soft (eco) coastal defence.

Question 44Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Managed retreat as a coastal management option means:

  1. Building ever-higher sea walls indefinitely
  2. Allowing the sea to flood or erode low-value land in a controlled way, often creating salt marsh to absorb wave energy Correct answer.
  3. Removing all beaches
  4. Banning people from the coast permanently

Explanation

Managed retreat (managed realignment) deliberately moves coastal defences landward and lets low-value land flood, creating salt marsh that absorbs wave energy and reduces long-term defence costs. It works with natural processes rather than resisting them everywhere.

Question 45Rivers, coasts and catchment water accounting

Reclamation of land from the sea, widely practised in Hong Kong, can create which environmental problem?

  1. Increase in deep-water marine habitat
  2. A permanent reduction in city land area
  3. Loss of intertidal habitat and changes to water currents and sedimentation Correct answer.
  4. An increase in natural coastline length

Explanation

Reclamation fills shallow coastal waters to create new land, but it destroys intertidal habitats, alters tidal currents and sediment movement, and can worsen water quality. Hong Kong relies on reclamation for flat land, so managing these impacts is important.

Question 46Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

A topographical map used in HKDSE Geography fieldwork is commonly at a scale of 1:20,000. This means that 1 cm on the map represents:

  1. 200 metres on the ground Correct answer.
  2. 20 metres on the ground
  3. 2,000 metres on the ground
  4. 20 kilometres on the ground

Explanation

At a scale of 1:20,000, one unit on the map equals 20,000 of the same units on the ground, so 1 cm represents 20,000 cm, which is 200 metres. Hong Kong's standard topographic maps are at 1:20,000 and 1:5,000.

Question 47Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

On a topographic map, contour lines that are drawn very close together indicate:

  1. Flat, low-lying ground
  2. A steep slope Correct answer.
  3. A river channel
  4. A built-up area

Explanation

Closely spaced contour lines mean the height changes rapidly over a short horizontal distance, indicating a steep slope. Widely spaced contours indicate gentle slopes or flat land.

Question 48Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

On a contour map, where contour lines form a V-shape pointing toward higher ground (upstream), the feature represented is usually a:

  1. Ridge or spur
  2. Flat plateau
  3. Valley with a river flowing through it Correct answer.
  4. Sea cliff

Explanation

Contours bending into a V that points uphill (upstream) indicate a valley, because the river has cut a channel and the land rises away from it on both sides. When the V points downhill, it represents a ridge or spur.

Question 49Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

When giving a six-figure grid reference on a topographic map, the first three figures refer to the:

  1. Northing (vertical position)
  2. Magnetic declination
  3. Altitude in metres
  4. Easting (horizontal position) Correct answer.

Explanation

A six-figure grid reference is read 'eastings then northings': the first three figures give the easting (how far across) and the last three give the northing (how far up). The rule is remembered as 'along the corridor, then up the stairs'.

Question 50Maps, statistics, spatial analysis and fieldwork

In a fieldwork study measuring beach profiles, which is an example of primary data?

  1. Beach gradient measurements you take yourself on site with a clinometer Correct answer.
  2. A figure copied from a textbook
  3. Population statistics downloaded from a government website
  4. A historical map from an archive

Explanation

Primary data are original observations or measurements collected first-hand in the field, such as beach gradients recorded with a clinometer. Material gathered by others, such as textbook figures, websites or archives, is secondary data.