Political Theory: Freedom, Equality, Justice
Political Theory: Freedom, Equality, Justice
This domain tests conceptual analysis: what freedom, equality and justice mean, how they conflict and how institutions reconcile them. Answers need definitions, distinctions and applied reasoning.
Core rules and concepts
- Negative liberty is absence of external interference; positive liberty is the capacity to act and self-realise. Isaiah Berlin warned that positive liberty can justify coercion if defined by others.
- Mill's harm principle limits interference to prevent harm to others, but free expression still has legal limits, as under Article 19(1)(a).
- Formal equality treats similar people alike; substantive equality accounts for unequal starting points and may require affirmative action.
- Rawls's difference principle permits inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged.
- Justice can be distributive, procedural, retributive or restorative. Amartya Sen's capability approach judges advantage by real freedoms people have.
Worked example
Does reservation violate equality? Reasoning: formal equality may oppose group preference, but substantive equality recognises historical exclusion. Article 15(4) and 16(4) allow provisions for backward classes; Indra Sawhney 1992 upheld 27 percent OBC reservation while excluding the creamy layer and capping total reservation ordinarily at 50 percent. The reasoning balances equality with social justice.
Traps that cost marks
- Freedom is not licence to harm others.
- Equality does not mean identical treatment in every context.
- Justice is not only legal punishment.
- Do not attribute the harm principle to Rawls.