Learning
Overview
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge resulting from experience. The exam tests classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning and cognitive learning, plus related phenomena.
Core concepts
- Classical conditioning (Pavlov): a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. Key terms: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation, discrimination.
- Operant conditioning (Skinner): consequences shape behaviour. Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases it. Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes one.
- Observational learning (Bandura): attention, retention, reproduction and motivation; vicarious reinforcement matters.
- Cognitive learning includes insight learning (Köhler) and latent learning (Tolman).
Worked example
A student finishes homework quickly to avoid a parent’s scolding. Scolding is removed after the behaviour, so homework increases. This is negative reinforcement, not punishment: something aversive is taken away, strengthening the response. If the parent instead added extra chores, that would be positive punishment and would tend to weaken the behaviour.
Traps that cost marks
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Extinction is not immediate forgetting; spontaneous recovery can occur after a pause. Generalisation is responding to similar stimuli; discrimination is responding differently. Latent learning is hidden until performance is rewarded. Observational learning does not require direct reinforcement of the learner.
Exam focus
Identify the conditioning type, the consequence, and whether behaviour is strengthened or weakened.