Learning
This domain tests the mechanisms of learning and the ability to classify examples correctly.
Classical conditioning
Pavlov paired a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS, bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, food) that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR, salivation). After acquisition, the CS alone elicits a conditioned response (CR). Extinction weakens the CR; spontaneous recovery is its temporary return; generalisation and discrimination refine responding.
Operant conditioning
Skinner emphasised consequences. Reinforcement increases behaviour (positive = add pleasant; negative = remove unpleasant). Punishment decreases behaviour. Schedules include fixed/variable ratio and interval; variable schedules produce persistent responding. Shaping reinforces successive approximations; token economies apply this in institutions.
Observational and cognitive learning
Bandura showed observational learning through modelling, with attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Tolman demonstrated latent learning; Köhler studied insight in chimpanzees. Learning can occur without immediate performance.
Worked example
A dog salivates at a bell that was previously paired with food. The bell is the CS and salivation is the CR. If the bell is repeatedly presented alone, salivation declines (extinction).
Traps
Negative reinforcement is not punishment: it strengthens behaviour by removing an aversive state. Classical conditioning involves stimulus pairing; operant conditioning involves consequences. Latent learning challenges the claim that learning requires reinforcement.