Earth, Atmospheric, Ocean and Planetary Sciences: Systems Thinking
Scope
This paper blends geology (mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, stratigraphy, palaeontology), geophysics, oceanography, atmospheric science and planetary science, with a strong numerical component.
In the solid Earth, know the plate-tectonic framework (divergent, convergent and transform boundaries with their seismic signatures), isostasy (Airy versus Pratt), seismic wave behaviour (P waves are compressional and faster; S waves cannot cross fluids; shadow zones locate the core), the Mohs scale, Bowen's reaction series, metamorphic facies, and the principles of superposition and faunal succession.
In the atmosphere, work with the hydrostatic equation, the environmental lapse rate versus the dry (~9.8 K/km) and saturated adiabatic rates, humidity measures (mixing ratio, relative humidity, dew point), Coriolis deflection (zero at the equator, rightward in the Northern Hemisphere), geostrophic and gradient-wind balance, and the land–sea thermal contrast that drives the monsoon.
In the ocean, expect Ekman transport and upwelling, thermohaline circulation, wave dispersion, tides, and the carbonate system. Planetary science draws on Kepler's laws, orbital mechanics, meteorite classification and comparative planetology.
Traps
Mixing dry and saturated lapse rates; forgetting that the Coriolis force does no work and acts perpendicular to motion; claiming S waves pass through the outer core; treating relative humidity as absolute moisture; reversing the pressure-gradient/Coriolis balance between hemispheres; and ignoring that isostatic balance depends on density contrasts, not topography alone.
Rule of thumb
A parcel rising 1 km dry-adiabatically cools roughly 10 °C, so it reaches the lifting condensation level when its temperature meets the dew point - a fast sanity check on any stability question.