Constitution of India
The constitutional segment rewards precision on article numbers, writ scope, and the position of the judiciary in the federal structure, including Article 233 in Bihar.
Core rules
- Article 12 defines the State; Art.13 makes inconsistent laws void; Art.14 permits classification only with intelligible differentia and a rational nexus to the object.
- Article 19 freedoms and their reasonable restrictions; Art.21 after Maneka Gandhi includes due process, and Puttaswamy (2017) read privacy into it; Art.21A provides free education for children aged six to fourteen; Art.22 safeguards arrest and detention.
- Articles 32 and 226: Art.32 is a fundamental right, while Art.226 is wider but discretionary; Art.136 is special leave.
- Directive Principles (Arts.36 to 51) are not enforceable but guide interpretation; Art.51A lists fundamental duties.
- Article 368 and the basic structure doctrine from Kesavananda Bharati (1973).
- Article 233: district judges are appointed by the Governor in consultation with the High Court; Art.235 gives the High Court control over subordinate courts; Art.227 gives superintendence; Art.50 separates the judiciary.
Worked example
A rule imposes a higher court fee on suits by companies than by individuals. Under Art.14 the classification is valid only if there is intelligible differentia and a rational nexus to the object of court revenue. Because the distinction between corporate and individual litigants bears no clear relation to that object, the rule fails.
Traps
Art.32 and Art.226 are treated as identical; amendment of fundamental rights is said to be permitted without the basic structure test; and Article 233 is confused with Article 235.