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RBSE VU Nyaya Darshan study materials
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RBSE VU Nyaya Darshan practice questions

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Question 1Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Nyaya Darshan is traditionally classified as one of the six astika darshanas. What does the label astika signify in this classification?

  1. It denies the reality of the external world
  2. It accepts the authority of the Vedas Correct answer.
  3. It rejects the existence of a permanent self
  4. It is confined to ritual sacrifice

Explanation

In the classical Indian classification, astika schools are those that accept the authority of the Vedas, while nastika schools such as Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka reject it. Nyaya, together with Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta, is counted among the astika because it honours Vedic authority.

Question 2Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

According to Nyaya tradition, who is credited as the founder of the Nyaya system and author of the Nyaya Sutras?

  1. Kapila
  2. Kanada
  3. Gautama Akshapada Correct answer.
  4. Jaimini

Explanation

The Nyaya Sutras are attributed to Gautama, also called Akshapada or Dirghatapas, who is regarded as the founding authority of the school. The other names belong to founders of different darshanas, so the attribution is unambiguous.

Question 3Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

The Nyaya school is most widely known for its systematic treatment of which subject?

  1. Musical aesthetics
  2. Grammar and phonetics
  3. Political economy
  4. Epistemology and logic Correct answer.

Explanation

Nyaya is celebrated chiefly as a school of pramana-shastra, the science of valid cognition, and of tarka, reasoning. Its sixteen categories of debate and its theory of inference made it the foundational logical tradition of classical India.

Question 4Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In Nyaya terminology, what does the word 'pramana' denote?

  1. A means of valid cognition Correct answer.
  2. A ritual obligation
  3. A category of substance
  4. A state of deep sleep

Explanation

Pramana literally means the instrument or means by which valid knowledge (prama) arises. Nyaya analyses cognition by separating the knower, the means of knowledge, the object and the resulting knowledge.

Question 5Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

How many pramanas does classical Nyaya accept as independent means of valid cognition?

  1. Four Correct answer.
  2. Two
  3. Three
  4. Six

Explanation

Nyaya accepts four pramanas: pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparison) and shabda (verbal testimony). Some other schools accept fewer, which is why the Nyaya count of four is a distinctive feature of the system.

Question 6Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Which of the following best describes the traditional meaning of 'darshana' in the phrase 'shad darshana'?

  1. A vow of renunciation
  2. A sacrificial altar
  3. A commentary on a sutra
  4. A philosophical system or viewpoint Correct answer.

Explanation

Darshana means seeing or a standpoint, and in philosophical usage it designates a system of thought or a school's viewpoint. The six darshanas are thus six classical systems of Indian philosophy, of which Nyaya is one.

Question 7Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Nyaya is traditionally paired with which other astika darshana because the two were later studied as a combined system?

  1. Purva Mimamsa
  2. Vedanta
  3. Vaisheshika Correct answer.
  4. Yoga

Explanation

Nyaya and Vaisheshika were gradually combined into a single tradition, often called Nyaya-Vaisheshika, because their analyses of epistemology and ontology were seen as complementary. Later works such as the Tarkasangraha present the two together.

Question 8Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In Nyaya epistemology, what is the specific object of 'anumana'?

  1. A perceived colour
  2. A word heard from a trustworthy speaker
  3. A relation inferred from a sign Correct answer.
  4. A similarity noticed between two things

Explanation

Anumana is inferential knowledge, arising when a sign or reason (linga) is known to be invariably connected with what is inferred. Perception, testimony and comparison each have their own distinct objects, so inference is identified by its reliance on invariable concomitance.

Question 9Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

The Nyaya Sutras organise their discussion around a set of sixteen padarthas. What is the first of these sixteen categories?

  1. Nigrahasthana
  2. Samshaya
  3. Pramana Correct answer.
  4. Prameya

Explanation

The first sutra of the Nyaya Sutras lists sixteen categories beginning with pramana, the means of valid knowledge, followed by prameya, samshaya and the rest. The ordering reflects the school's concern to ground debate in reliable cognition before discussing objects and doubt.

Question 10Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In Nyaya debate theory, what is a 'hetu'?

  1. The opponent who raises objections
  2. The reason or inferential mark Correct answer.
  3. The example cited in support
  4. The conclusion to be established

Explanation

In inference the hetu is the reason, the inferential mark whose invariable connection with the probandum licenses the conclusion. A well-formed inference requires the hetu to satisfy conditions such as pakshadharmata and vyapti.

Question 11Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

A student argues: 'There is fire on the hill, because there is smoke on the hill.' In Nyaya terms, what role does the smoke play?

  1. It is the sadhya
  2. It is the drishtanta
  3. It is the hetu Correct answer.
  4. It is the paksha

Explanation

The smoke functions as the hetu, the reason grounded in the invariable relation between smoke and fire. The hill is the paksha, the subject under consideration, and fire is the sadhya, what is to be established.

Question 12Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Nyaya holds that shabda as a pramana yields valid knowledge only under what condition?

  1. When the listener already agrees with it
  2. When the sentence is grammatically complex
  3. When it is repeated several times
  4. When the speaker is a reliable authority Correct answer.

Explanation

Shabda is knowledge derived from the statement of a trustworthy person (apta), so its validity depends on the reliability of the speaker rather than on style or repetition. This is why Nyaya treats Vedic testimony as authoritative by locating it in a faultless source.

Question 13Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Which pair correctly matches a pramana with its defining object in Nyaya?

  1. Upamana - knowledge of a thing through similarity to something already known Correct answer.
  2. Anumana - direct sensory contact with an object
  3. Shabda - cognition arising from invariable concomitance
  4. Pratyaksha - knowledge derived from an authoritative text

Explanation

Upamana is knowledge of something not previously perceived through its resemblance to something already known, as when a person learns what a gayal is from its likeness to a cow. Each of the other options swaps a pramana with the defining feature of a different one.

Question 14Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In the Nyaya scheme of debate, what is 'jalpa'?

  1. Disputation using any means to win, including tricky arguments Correct answer.
  2. The formal statement of the thesis
  3. Honest discussion aimed only at establishing truth
  4. A silent refusal to answer an opponent

Explanation

Nyaya distinguishes three kinds of discussion: vada, a truth-seeking debate; jalpa, a disputation in which victory is the aim and contentious tricks may be used; and vitanda, which merely attacks without defending a position. Jalpa is thus defined by its combative aim rather than by truth alone.

Question 15Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Nyaya's acceptance of four pramanas places it between schools that accept fewer. Which statement correctly captures this comparative position?

  1. Nyaya accepts more pramanas than Charvaka, which accepts only perception Correct answer.
  2. Nyaya accepts fewer pramanas than Mimamsa, which accepts six
  3. Nyaya accepts the same number as Vedanta's standard list
  4. Nyaya accepts no pramanas apart from testimony

Explanation

Charvaka accepts perception alone as valid, so Nyaya's list of four is broader. Mimamsa is the school often credited with accepting a further pramana beyond Nyaya's four, so Nyaya does not exceed it.

Question 16Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Which statement about the place of Nyaya among the six astika darshanas is accurate?

  1. Nyaya is counted among the astika only in modern textbooks
  2. Nyaya is a nastika school because it questions Vedic ritual
  3. Nyaya is an astika school that shares Vedic acceptance while specialising in logic Correct answer.
  4. Nyaya belongs to the six but rejects all pramanas

Explanation

Nyaya accepts Vedic authority, which makes it astika, but its distinctive contribution is its logical and epistemological analysis rather than exegesis of ritual texts. This combination of Vedic acceptance with a specialised logical focus is what defines its place in the six.

Question 17Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In Nyaya, the term 'prama' is distinguished from 'pramana'. Which description is correct?

  1. Prama is the valid cognition itself, while pramana is the means producing it Correct answer.
  2. Prama is the object known, while pramana is the knower
  3. Prama is doubt, while pramana is certainty
  4. Prama is the means of cognition, while pramana is the resulting error

Explanation

Nyaya carefully separates the resulting valid cognition (prama) from the instrument that produces it (pramana). The knower (pramata) and the object (prameya) complete this fourfold analysis of knowledge.

Question 18Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

A Nyaya thinker argues that a cognition's validity is not simply assumed but must be established, and in cases of doubt it is confirmed by further successful activity. Which Nyaya position does this illustrate?

  1. Paratah-pramanya, that validity is established by something other than the cognition itself Correct answer.
  2. That all cognition is invalid
  3. That validity is decided by majority opinion
  4. Svatah-pramanya, that validity is intrinsic and self-established

Explanation

Nyaya holds paratah-pramanya: the validity of a cognition is established by an external factor, typically subsequent successful practical activity, while invalidity is likewise known through discrepancy. Mimamsa, by contrast, is famous for the svatah view that validity is intrinsic.

Question 19Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

Nyaya classifies perception into nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka. What distinguishes savikalpaka-pratyaksha?

  1. It is the inferential knowledge of a general rule
  2. It is bare apprehension without any verbal or relational determination
  3. It is perception accompanied by conceptual determination, as when one cognises 'this is a jar' Correct answer.
  4. It is knowledge obtained only from scripture

Explanation

Nirvikalpaka perception is the initial indeterminate contact with an object, free of name and class, while savikalpaka perception involves determinate cognition that identifies the object as belonging to a kind. The distinction concerns levels of perceptual content, not the source of knowledge.

Question 20Introduction to Nyaya Darshan: origin, place among the six astika darshanas, and basic terminology

In Nyaya inference, what does 'vyapti' refer to, and why is it indispensable?

  1. The final defeat of an opponent in debate
  2. The invariable concomitance between hetu and sadhya, without which no inference is possible Correct answer.
  3. The mere co-occurrence of two things observed once
  4. The speaker's reliability, which guarantees testimony

Explanation

Vyapti is the universal relation of pervasion between the reason and what is to be proved, such as smoke's being pervaded by fire. Nyaya requires vyapti to be established through repeated observation free of contrary instances, since a single co-occurrence cannot ground a valid inference.

Question 21Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In Nyaya, what does the term 'pramana' most precisely denote?

  1. The verbal statement accepted on the authority of a teacher
  2. The psychological feeling of certainty accompanying belief
  3. The object that is known through a cognition
  4. The means or instrument by which valid cognition arises Correct answer.

Explanation

Pramana literally means the instrument of valid knowledge, that through which prama (valid cognition) is produced. Nyaya treats it as the causal instrument of knowing, distinct from the knower and the known object. The four accepted pramanas are pratyaksha, anumana, upamana and shabda.

Question 22Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

According to Nyaya, how many pramanas are accepted as basic?

  1. Six
  2. Two
  3. Four Correct answer.
  4. Three

Explanation

Classical Nyaya accepts exactly four pramanas: pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparison) and shabda (verbal testimony). Schools such as the Charvakas accept only perception, while Mimamsa and Vedanta admit additional pramanas like arthapatti. Nyaya's fourfold scheme is therefore a deliberate, defended list.

Question 23Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which definition of pratyaksha best matches Nyaya's account?

  1. Cognition produced by the contact of a sense organ with its appropriate object Correct answer.
  2. Cognition arising from the awareness of a universal shared by many individuals
  3. Cognition produced by the recognition of a previously learned similarity
  4. Cognition arising from the trustworthy assertion of another person

Explanation

For Nyaya, perception is cognition generated by sense-object contact (indriyartha-sannikarsha), and it must be non-erroneous and determinate to count as valid. The contact relation is the defining causal condition. Without such contact, a cognition belongs to another pramana or is invalid.

Question 24Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Nyaya divides perception into two stages. Which pair names them correctly?

  1. Sannikarsha and samavaya
  2. Savikalpaka and nirvikalpaka Correct answer.
  3. Kevala and savisesha
  4. Laukika and alaukika

Explanation

Nyaya distinguishes nirvikalpaka perception, an indeterminate awareness that merely grasps the bare object, from savikalpaka perception, which is determinate and structured by name, genus and quality. Both are genuine perceptual episodes, with the determinate stage yielding expressible knowledge. The other pairs name different distinctions entirely.

Question 25Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A student sees a pot on the ground and thinks 'this is a pot'. Which description fits this cognition in Nyaya terms?

  1. Nirvikalpaka perception, since it involves a bare sensory given
  2. Savikalpaka perception, since it is determinate and verbally expressible Correct answer.
  3. Upamana, since it depends on a remembered comparison
  4. Anumana, since the word 'pot' functions as a inferential sign

Explanation

The cognition is structured by a name and a kind, and it can be put into words, which is the mark of savikalpaka perception. Nirvikalpaka awareness is the prior, inarticulate grasping of the object. Because the object is directly present to the sense organ, the cognition remains perceptual rather than inferential.

Question 26Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which of the following is required for a cognition to count as valid perception (pratyaksha prama) in Nyaya?

  1. The cognition must be confirmed by at least two other observers
  2. The cognition must be remembered from a previous life
  3. The cognition must be produced by a verbal instruction
  4. The cognition must be free from doubt and error and arise from sense-object contact Correct answer.

Explanation

Valid perception requires both the right causal route, namely sense-object contact, and freedom from doubt and error (avyabhicara). Truth in Nyaya is correspondence with the object as it is. Social confirmation or memory does not enter the definition.

Question 27Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In Nyaya, the term 'anumana' refers to knowledge arising from which process?

  1. Direct sensory contact with an object present before the senses
  2. Knowledge of similarity through the recollection of an authoritative comparison
  3. Knowledge of an object through a sign known to be invariably connected with it Correct answer.
  4. Knowledge of a word's meaning through the instruction of a reliable speaker

Explanation

Anumana is inferential knowledge: from a linga (sign or reason) whose invariable concomitance (vyapti) with the sadhya (probandum) is known, one cognizes the sadhya. The classic example is inferring fire from smoke on a hill. The other options describe perception, testimony and comparison respectively.

Question 28Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

How many members (avayava) does a full Nyaya inference statement contain?

  1. Five Correct answer.
  2. Three
  3. Four
  4. Seven

Explanation

The Nyaya syllogism has five members: pratijna (thesis), hetu (reason), udaharana (example), upanaya (application) and nigamana (conclusion). This five-member form is a defining feature of Nyaya logic. Buddhist logic famously reduces the pattern to three members.

Question 29Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In the inference 'the hill has fire because it has smoke', which element is the hetu?

  1. The relation of invariable concomitance
  2. Smoke Correct answer.
  3. The hill
  4. Fire

Explanation

The hetu is the reason or sign, which here is smoke, since it is what grounds the inference. The hill is the paksha (subject), fire is the sadhya (what is to be established), and vyapti is the invariable relation linking smoke with fire. Identifying the hetu correctly is essential to evaluating any inference.

Question 30Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

What does 'vyapti' mean in Nyaya inference?

  1. The defect that invalidates an inferential sign
  2. The invariable concomitance between the sign and what is inferred Correct answer.
  3. The example cited to illustrate the reason
  4. The doubt that precedes an inference

Explanation

Vyapti is the invariable, unconditional relation between hetu and sadhya, such as the relation between smoke and fire. Knowledge of vyapti is what licenses the move from observing the sign to asserting the conclusion. Without established vyapti, an inference has no grounding.

Question 31Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which pair correctly lists the three types of inference (anumana) recognized in Nyaya?

  1. Kevala, anvaya and vyatireka
  2. Purvavat, seshavat and samanyatodrishta Correct answer.
  3. Savikalpaka, nirvikalpaka and samanyalakshana
  4. Pratyaksha, paroksha and aparoksha

Explanation

Nyaya classifies inference as purvavat (from cause to effect or as previously observed), seshavat (from effect to cause, or from observed parts to the remainder) and samanyatodrishta (from a general observed uniformity to an unperceived case). Each class rests on a different way vyapti is known. The other lists mix categories from perception or from the method of argument.

Question 32Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A logician argues: wherever there is smoke there is fire, as in a kitchen; this hill has smoke; therefore this hill has fire. Which member of the Nyaya syllogism does the kitchen statement supply?

  1. Nigamana
  2. Upanaya
  3. Udaharana Correct answer.
  4. Pratijna

Explanation

The kitchen statement is the udaharana, the example that exhibits the invariable concomitance between smoke and fire. It supports the universal premise on which the inference depends. The thesis, application and conclusion are the other members of the five-fold pattern.

Question 33Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

What is a 'hetvabhasa' in Nyaya logic?

  1. A verbal testimony that contradicts scriptural authority
  2. An example that is accepted by both parties to a debate
  3. A sign that appears to establish an inference but is defective Correct answer.
  4. A conclusion that has already been established by perception

Explanation

Hetvabhasa literally means a semblance of a reason: a sign that looks like a valid hetu but lacks genuine vyapti or is otherwise flawed. Nyaya catalogues these fallacies, including savyabhichara (deviating), viruddha (contradictory) and satpratipaksha (counterbalanced). Recognizing them is central to assessing inferential validity.

Question 34Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which fallacy occurs when the reason is present in places where the sadhya is absent?

  1. Badhita
  2. Savyabhichara Correct answer.
  3. Asiddha
  4. Viruddha

Explanation

Savyabhichara is the deviating or inconclusive reason: it occurs both where the sadhya is present and where it is absent, so it cannot establish the conclusion. For example, inferring fire from a lake because the lake is a substance would fail, since not every substance is fiery. The other names mark distinct defects.

Question 35Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In Nyaya, upamana is the pramana that yields knowledge of what?

  1. The relation between a word and the class of objects it denotes, learned through authoritative comparison Correct answer.
  2. The inner awareness that one's own cognition has occurred
  3. The invariable connection between a sign and its inferred object
  4. The bare sensory contact that precedes conceptualization

Explanation

Upamana is knowledge gained through comparison and authoritative instruction, classically the case of learning that a certain animal is called a 'gavaya' because it resembles a cow. It establishes the denotation of a term through perceived similarity plus testimony. It is thus distinct from inference and from bare perception.

Question 36Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A traveller is told by a forester that a gavaya is an animal resembling a cow, and later recognizes a gavaya in the forest as the referent of that word. Which pramana does this knowledge illustrate?

  1. Anumana
  2. Pratyaksha
  3. Upamana Correct answer.
  4. Shabda

Explanation

The knowledge that the word 'gavaya' denotes this animal arises from the remembered authoritative comparison combined with perceived similarity, which is exactly upamana. It is not mere testimony, because the traveller's own recognition of similarity is essential. Nor is it inference, since no sign and vyapti are involved.

Question 37Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

What is the classical Nyaya example used to explain upamana?

  1. Seeing a pot produced from clay and inferring its impermanence
  2. Recognizing a gavaya as the animal denoted by that word because it resembles a cow Correct answer.
  3. Inferring fire from smoke on a hill
  4. Hearing a trustworthy person state that there is water in the distance

Explanation

The standard illustration of upamana is the gavaya, an animal resembling a cow, whose name one learns through authoritative comparison and later applies on seeing it. The example brings out the combination of similarity and testimony that defines this pramana. The other examples illustrate inference and verbal testimony.

Question 38Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In Nyaya, shabda as a pramana is best characterized as knowledge arising from which source?

  1. The emotional tone conveyed by a speaker's voice
  2. The utterance of a reliable or trustworthy person Correct answer.
  3. The grammatical structure of a sentence considered apart from meaning
  4. Any sound that reaches the ear

Explanation

Shabda pramana is verbal testimony: cognition of a meaning produced by a sentence whose speaker is a reliable authority (apta). The reliability of the speaker is essential, since testimony from an unreliable source does not yield prama. Mere sound or grammar without trustworthy assertion is not a pramana.

Question 39Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Nyaya distinguishes two kinds of shabda. Which pair is correct?

  1. Drishtartha and adrishtartha Correct answer.
  2. Anvaya and vyatireka
  3. Purvavat and seshavat
  4. Laukika and alaukika

Explanation

Nyaya divides verbal testimony into drishtartha, whose content can be verified by perception, and adrishtartha, whose content concerns matters beyond ordinary perception such as heaven or liberation. The distinction concerns the subject matter of the testimony. The other pairs belong to perception, to the method of establishing vyapti, and to types of inference.

Question 40Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

According to Nyaya, what makes a verbal statement a valid pramana?

  1. It agrees with the listener's prior opinion
  2. It is repeated by many people in the same form
  3. It is uttered by a trustworthy person and its meaning is understood Correct answer.
  4. It is spoken in a grammatically elegant way

Explanation

Verbal testimony is valid when the speaker is an apta, a reliable authority, and the hearer grasps the sentence meaning. Both conditions are needed: an unreliable speaker or an uncomprehended utterance yields no prama. Elegance, repetition and prior agreement are not the criteria of testimonial validity.

Question 41Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which statement best captures the Nyaya view on the independence of the four pramanas?

  1. Each pramana yields a distinctive kind of valid cognition not obtainable by the others Correct answer.
  2. Only shabda is authoritative because scripture surpasses perception
  3. Upamana and shabda are reducible to inference and have no separate standing
  4. Pratyaksha alone is authoritative and the rest are merely probable

Explanation

Nyaya holds that the four pramanas are irreducible: each has its own characteristic object and mode of producing valid cognition, so none is merely a disguised form of another. Inference cannot deliver the word-meaning knowledge proper to upamana, and testimony cannot be reduced to sensory contact. This pluralism contrasts with schools that collapse the list.

Question 42Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A debater claims a reason that is present in the subject but also occurs where the conclusion is absent. What is the precise Nyaya verdict on that reason?

  1. It is savyabhichara and therefore inconclusive Correct answer.
  2. It is viruddha because it proves the opposite
  3. It is a valid hetu because it is present in the paksha
  4. It is asiddha because its presence is unproved

Explanation

A reason that occurs both where the sadhya is present and where it is absent is savyabhichara, the deviating reason, and cannot establish the conclusion. Presence in the paksha alone is insufficient; invariable concomitance is also required. This is why Nyaya insists on vyapti rather than mere co-occurrence.

Question 43Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which form of extraordinary perception (alaukika pratyaksha) does Nyaya describe as the perception of a universal in all its instances through the mediation of a presented particular?

  1. Sannikarsha
  2. Yogaja
  3. Samanyalakshana Correct answer.
  4. Jnanalakshana

Explanation

Samanyalakshana is the extraordinary perception by which a universal, such as cowness, is grasped as pervading all its instances, mediated by the perception of one instance. Jnanalakshana is perception through the mediation of prior knowledge, and yogaja is the perception of yogins. Sannikarsha names sense-object contact generally.

Question 44Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Which of the following best states the Nyaya criterion of truth (pramanya) for a cognition?

  1. Coherence with the rest of one's beliefs
  2. Correspondence with the object and production by a faultless causal process Correct answer.
  3. Practical utility in guiding successful action
  4. Endorsement by a recognized community of scholars

Explanation

Nyaya is a correspondence theory: a cognition is true when it conforms to the object as it really is, and it is valid when generated by an appropriate, defect-free causal process. Utility may follow from truth but does not define it. Coherence and social endorsement are not the Nyaya criterion.

Question 45Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A person infers that a distant hill has fire from seeing smoke, having previously established the smoke-fire relation in many cases. Which type of inference does Nyaya assign to this case?

  1. Upamana
  2. Samanyatodrishta
  3. Purvavat Correct answer.
  4. Seshavat

Explanation

Purvavat inference proceeds from a sign whose relation to the sadhya has been observed in previous cases, as with smoke and fire. Seshavat moves from observed effects to an unobserved cause, and samanyatodrishta relies on a general uniformity without a specific observed instance of the pair. The hill case fits the first pattern.

Question 46Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In Nyaya, pratyaksha is defined as knowledge that is produced by the contact between a sense organ and its object. Which condition must that contact satisfy for the resulting cognition to be classed as perception rather than inference or memory?

  1. The contact must be direct and present, not mediated by memory or by a sign such as smoke Correct answer.
  2. The contact must be repeated at least twice so that a lasting impression is formed
  3. The contact must be accompanied by verbal testimony confirming the object
  4. The contact must occur while the mind is free of any past impressions

Explanation

Nyaya defines perception as cognition born of sense-object contact (indriyartha-sannikarsha) that is direct and not produced through a sign or through recollection. Repetition, testimony, and the absence of impressions are not part of the defining condition, since even a first, unconfirmed sensory contact yields perception.

Question 47Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Nyaya classifies perception into nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka. Which description correctly distinguishes the two?

  1. Nirvikalpaka is perception by the senses, while savikalpaka is perception by the inner sense alone
  2. Nirvikalpaka is bare, undifferentiated awareness of the object, while savikalpaka is determinate awareness that joins name, genus, and quality to it Correct answer.
  3. Nirvikalpaka is perception of universals only, while savikalpaka is perception of particulars only
  4. Nirvikalpaka is determinate perception qualified by name and genus, while savikalpaka is bare undifferentiated contact

Explanation

Nirvikalpaka is the initial indeterminate awareness arising from sense contact, before any qualification by name or class. Savikalpaka is the subsequent determinate cognition in which the object is grasped as 'this is a jar', involving name, genus, and quality.

Question 48Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

A student claims that the Nyaya definition of perception covers only ordinary sensory contact, so a yogin's direct awareness of past and future objects cannot be perception at all. How does Nyaya respond?

  1. It reclassifies such awareness as a form of shabda received from scripture
  2. It admits alaukika pratyaksha, extraordinary perception, as genuine perception arising from a special contact not available to ordinary perceivers Correct answer.
  3. It treats such awareness as inference from subtle signs available only to yogins
  4. It agrees, since only contact through the five outer senses counts as perception

Explanation

Nyaya's definition of perception is broad enough to include alaukika pratyaksha, extraordinary perception, where the required contact is of a special kind rather than ordinary sense-object conjunction. Yogic perception of distant or future objects, and the perception of universals, are accommodated under this heading.

Question 49Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

In a Nyaya inference, the linga (reason) must be related to the sadhya by vyapti. Which additional condition does Nyaya require of the reason with respect to the subject (paksha)?

  1. The reason must be a perceived object rather than an inferred one
  2. The reason must be stated in the conclusion itself
  3. The reason must be absent from the subject so that it can be tested
  4. The reason must be present in the subject (pakshadharmata) Correct answer.

Explanation

A valid inference requires both pakshadharmata, the presence of the reason in the subject under consideration, and vyapti, its invariable accompaniment by the sadhya. Without the reason actually residing in the paksha, no inference about that subject can proceed.

Question 50Pramana theory: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, shabda - definitions, conditions, and validity

Nyaya recognises three kinds of inference according to the direction of reasoning. Which set correctly names them?

  1. Purvavat, sheshavat, and samanyatodrishta Correct answer.
  2. Svartha, parartha, and sandigdha
  3. Kevala, anvaya, and vyatireka
  4. Pratyaksha, paroksha, and aparoksha

Explanation

The threefold classification is purvavat (inferring an effect from a cause, as rain from clouds), sheshavat (inferring a cause from an effect, as fire from smoke), and samanyatodrishta (inferring from a general observed correlation where cause-effect order is not at issue).