Pramana Theory: Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana, Shabda
The four pramanas
Nyaya accepts four pramanas: pratyaksha, anumana, upamana, and shabda. The exam tests definitions, conditions, and how validity is established.
Core rules
- Pratyaksha is cognition produced by sense-object contact, non-erroneous and unmediated by inference or testimony. Nyaya distinguishes nirvikalpaka (indeterminate) and savikalpaka (determinate) perception.
- Anumana is inferential knowledge arising from a hetu that is invariably related to the sadhya through vyapti.
- Upamana is knowledge through comparison or analogy; it gives knowledge of a name and class through similarity, not mere perception of similarity.
- Shabda is knowledge from trustworthy testimony (apta-vakya), requiring a reliable speaker and correct sentence understanding.
- Nyaya holds paratah pramanya: validity is established by external conditions, while invalidity is also extrinsic. Prama is valid cognition; aprama is invalid.
Worked example
A traveler knows cows but has never seen a gavaya. A villager says, 'A gavaya is like a cow.' Later the traveler sees an animal resembling a cow and recognizes, 'This is a gavaya.' The knowledge is upamana because the similarity statement plus perception yields class-name knowledge. It is not anumana, since no invariable smoke-fire type relation is used.
Traps
Do not call every true statement shabda; testimony must come from an apta. Do not treat upamana as simple perception. Do not say pratyaksha is always savikalpaka. Do not claim Nyaya accepts svatah pramanya.