Social Research Methods and Techniques: Observation, Survey, Interview, Questionnaire, Case Study and Sampling
What the exam tests
You must match methods to research questions, distinguish probability and non-probability sampling, and recognise reliability, validity and ethics.
Core rules and concepts
- Observation: watching behaviour. Participant observation gives depth but risks observer bias; non-participant observation is detached. Structured observation uses a checklist.
- Survey: systematic collection of data from a population or sample, often using questionnaires or interviews.
- Interview: conversation with a purpose. Structured interviews use fixed questions; unstructured interviews allow depth. An interview schedule is read by the interviewer; a questionnaire is usually self-administered.
- Case study: intensive, holistic study of one case, useful for rare or complex phenomena; weak for statistical generalisation.
- Sampling: probability methods (simple random, systematic, stratified, cluster) allow generalisation; non-probability methods (purposive, convenience, snowball, quota) do not.
- Ethics: informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality and no harm.
Worked example
You study school dropout in a district. Reasoning: first define the population as all secondary students in the district. A stratified random sample by gender and rural/urban location improves representativeness. A questionnaire can measure dropout rates, but interviews with dropouts and parents explain why. A case study of one school adds context but cannot represent the district alone.
Traps that cost marks
- Confusing questionnaire with interview schedule.
- Treating a sample as the population.
- Claiming participant observation is always objective.
- Using a convenience sample and generalising to all India.