Pranayama, Mudra, Bandha and Shatkarma
Pranayama
Prana (vital energy) + ayama (extension or regulation). The components are puraka (inhalation), rechaka (exhalation), kumbhaka (retention, either internal or external) and the ratio between them. Beginners start without retention, moving toward a 1:2 ratio of inhalation to exhalation; classical ratios such as 1:4:2 are for advanced practitioners under supervision. Know the techniques: Nadi Shodhana/Anulom Vilom, Bhastrika, Ujjayi, Bhramari, Sheetali, Sheetkari, Suryabheda and Chandrabhedi. Kapalabhati is a cleansing kriya but is commonly grouped with pranayama in classes - a classic exam trap. Avoid breath retention in hypertension, cardiac disease and pregnancy; avoid forceful breathing in asthma and vertigo.
Mudra
Hand gestures (hasta mudras) such as Chin, Jnana, Anjali, Dhyana and Nasagra, plus head and body mudras (Viparita Karani, Maha Mudra). They are described as seals that channel and direct energy and support concentration.
Bandha
Four locks: Jalandhara (throat lock, chin to chest), Uddiyana (abdominal lock, navel drawn in and up after exhalation), Mula (perineal/root lock) and Maha (all three together). Bandhas are applied after exhalation, never with breath held in forcefully by beginners; avoid in hypertension, heart disease and pregnancy.
Shatkarma
The six cleansing actions: Neti, Dhauti, Nauli, Basti, Kapalabhati, Trataka. They are described in the Hatha texts and require expert supervision.
Rule of thumb
Breath first, retention last. If a student is breathless, dizzy or gripping the face, the practice is too forceful; stop and rest. Worked example: for a beginner with anxiety, teach Nadi Shodhana at 4 counts in, 6-8 out, no hold, seated - not Bhastrika.