Philosophy
Core concepts
Candidates must handle logic (propositions, validity vs truth, syllogism, fallacies), epistemology (knowledge, justification, empiricism vs rationalism, scientific method), ethics (deontology, consequentialism, virtue ethics, freedom and responsibility), and history of philosophy (major figures and their central theses). The essay requires a clear problem, a thesis, argumentation with references, and a critical conclusion.
Traps
- Confusing validity (form) with truth (content): a valid argument can have false premises.
- Treating a posteriori (from experience) and a priori (independent of experience) as synonyms for concrete and abstract.
- In ethics, mixing intention with consequence when classifying a doctrine.
- In essays, summarizing philosophers instead of arguing - the examiner rewards a defended position, not a list.
- Ignoring the distinction between explaining a doctrine and evaluating it.
Rule of thumb
Structure every essay as problématique → thèse → antithèse → synthèse. Test any syllogism by asking: if the premises were true, must the conclusion follow? If yes, it is valid regardless of actual truth.
Worked example
All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore Socrates is mortal. The form is valid. Replace the middle term and the same form still yields a valid inference even with false premises - showing validity is formal, not factual.