First- and Second-Language Acquisition and Literacy Development
What to know
Domain 2 focuses on how languages are acquired and how literacy develops across two languages. Candidates should understand second-language acquisition stages (pre-production/silent period, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, advanced fluency) and that errors are often developmental, not deficits. Know Cummins's threshold hypothesis and the idea that strong L1 literacy supports L2 literacy through cross-linguistic transfer (phonological awareness, decoding strategies, cognates, and academic vocabulary). Understand the transfer concept: skills learned in one language can support the other when adequately developed.
Also know the role of comprehensible input (Krashen), output and interaction (Swain's output hypothesis, Long's interaction hypothesis), and the importance of the affective filter (anxiety, motivation, identity). Recognize the difference between conversational proficiency and academic language, and how academic language features (nominalization, complex sentences, discipline-specific vocabulary) create challenges. Understand the role of the home language in identity and motivation, and how biliteracy develops through paired reading, cognate instruction, and metalinguistic awareness.
Traps
Items often label normal developmental errors as signs of a disability-flag that. Another trap is assuming L1 use slows English acquisition; research supports strategic L1 use. Watch for confusing BICS/CALP timelines or treating cognates as universal (false cognates exist).
Rule of thumb
If a student's L1 literacy is strong, expect positive transfer; if a stem says "student struggles in L2," first check L1 literacy and academic language exposure before suspecting a disability.