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Brady- is a prefix meaning slow. It is the direct opposite of tachy-, which means fast. Bradycardia therefore describes a slower-than-normal heart rate.
The suffix -ectomy means surgical removal or excision of a structure. In appendectomy, the combining form append/o (appendix) is joined to -ectomy. Other surgical suffixes such as -plasty, -tomy, and -scopy describe repair, cutting, and viewing.
Hepat/o is the combining form for liver, as seen in hepatitis and hepatomegaly. Each combining form pairs a root with a vowel so it can attach to a suffix or another root.
Medical words ending in -sis form the plural by changing -sis to -ses, so diagnosis becomes diagnoses. The same pattern applies to prognosis (prognoses) and metastasis (metastases).
The suffix -itis means inflammation, so gastritis is inflammation of the stomach. The suffix attaches to the combining form gastr/o, which identifies the affected structure.
Hyper- means excessive or above normal, so hyperthyroidism describes overactivity of the thyroid gland. Its counterpart hypo- means under or below normal.
The combining vowel is usually o, as in cardiology and gastroscopy. It is added between a root and a suffix or between two roots when the suffix begins with a consonant.
Dermat/o means skin, and -logy means study of, so dermatology is the study and treatment of skin disorders. Recognizing the root is the key to decoding specialty names.
Abduction is movement of a limb away from the midline of the body. The prefix ab- means away from, while ad- means toward.
Distal describes a position farther from the trunk or from the point of origin of a structure, as the hand is distal to the elbow. Proximal is the opposite direction.
The suffix -plasty means surgical repair or reconstruction, so rhinoplasty is surgical repair of the nose. Different surgical suffixes identify distinct procedures even when the root stays the same.
Dys- means difficult or abnormal, and -phagia refers to swallowing, so dysphagia is difficulty swallowing. The root change distinguishes it from terms about speech and appetite.
Cyan/o means blue, and -osis means condition, so cyanosis is a bluish discoloration often caused by inadequate oxygenation. Skin color terms are built directly from their color roots.
Hem/a and hemat/o refer to blood, and -uria refers to urine, so hematuria means blood in the urine. The suffix -uria is used across many urinary terms.
Oste/o means bone and -malacia means softening, so osteomalacia is a softening of bone. The suffix identifies the pathologic process rather than the tissue involved.
NPO stands for the Latin phrase nil per os, meaning nothing by mouth. It is commonly used before surgery or procedures requiring an empty stomach.
prn comes from the Latin pro re nata, meaning as needed. It tells the caregiver to give the medication only when the specified condition occurs.
My/o means muscle and cardi/o means heart, so myocardial means pertaining to heart muscle. The suffix -al means pertaining to, and the roots identify the specific structure.
The suffix -rrhea means flow or discharge. Combined with a root, it identifies what is flowing, as in rhinorrhea (nasal discharge).
Tachy- means fast, so tachycardia is a heart rate that is faster than normal. It is the counterpart of bradycardia, which is a slow heart rate.
Nephr/o means kidney, lith/o means stone, and -iasis means presence of a condition, so nephrolithiasis is the presence of kidney stones. Breaking the term into its three parts reveals the meaning.
Orth/o means straight or upright and -pnea means breathing, so orthopnea describes breathing that is comfortable only in an upright position. It is often reported by patients with heart failure or severe lung disease.
Idio- means peculiar to the individual and -pathic means relating to disease, so idiopathic means of unknown cause. The term reports the absence of an identified etiology rather than a severity or prognosis.
The suffix -ptosis means drooping or prolapse of a structure, so blepharoptosis is drooping of the eyelid. It is distinct from suffixes describing weakness, pain, or fluid accumulation.
The suffix -tripsy means crushing, so lithotripsy is the crushing of a stone. It is often confused with surgical suffixes that describe cutting or suturing.
Nouns ending in -us in Latin-derived medical terminology typically form the plural by changing -us to -i, so bronchus becomes bronchi. The ending -ae is used for nouns ending in -a (such as vertebra to vertebrae). Adding a standard English -es or an -ia ending does not follow the convention for this word.
The prefix intra- means within or inside, so intravenous means within a vein. Related prefixes carry different meanings: inter- means between, peri- means around, and infra- means below. Recognizing these distinctions prevents misreading orders and procedure descriptions.
The suffix -ostomy means forming a surgical opening or mouth between a structure and the surface. The suffix -otomy means cutting into a structure, -ectomy means surgical removal, and -pexy means surgical fixation. The combining form col/o supplies the colon as the structure involved.
The combining form hepat/o means liver, so hepatomegaly means enlargement of the liver. The kidney is represented by ren/o or nephr/o, the spleen by splen/o, and the stomach by gastr/o. Combining forms must be matched precisely because organ roots appear in many diagnostic and surgical terms.
The suffix -rrhaphy means surgical suture, so a sutured tendon repair is described with that ending. The suffix -rrhexis means rupture, -rrhagia means excessive flow or hemorrhage, and -stenosis means narrowing. These endings look similar but describe entirely different clinical events.
Superior (cranial) means toward the head, while inferior (caudal) means toward the feet. Distal refers to being farther from the point of attachment of a limb, and ventral refers to the anterior or front surface of the body.
The adult skeleton normally contains 206 bones divided into the axial and appendicular divisions. Infants begin with roughly 270 bones, and some fuse during growth to reach the adult total.
The skin is the largest organ by both surface area and weight, forming the integumentary system. It provides a protective barrier, regulates temperature, and houses sensory receptors.
The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and ejects it through the aortic valve into the aorta. Its myocardium is the thickest of the four chambers because it must generate the highest pressure.
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. Each kidney contains roughly one million nephrons that filter blood and form urine.
Alveoli are thin-walled sacs surrounded by capillaries where oxygen diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Their enormous combined surface area and thin respiratory membrane make efficient exchange possible.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and the roof of the abdominal cavity. Its contraction increases thoracic volume and drives inspiration.
A tendon is dense regular connective tissue that connects muscle to bone and transmits the force of contraction. A ligament, by contrast, connects bone to bone across a joint.
The frontal plane, also called the coronal plane, runs vertically side to side and separates anterior from posterior portions. The sagittal plane divides left from right, and the transverse plane divides superior from inferior.
The small intestine is the principal site of nutrient absorption because its villi and microvilli greatly expand surface area. The stomach mainly churns and begins protein digestion, while the large intestine primarily absorbs water and electrolytes.
Insulin is secreted by pancreatic beta cells and moves glucose from blood into cells, lowering blood glucose. Glucagon and cortisol act in the opposite direction and tend to raise blood glucose.
The appendix arises from the cecum in the right lower quadrant, which is why appendicitis typically produces pain near McBurney's point. The upper quadrants house organs such as the liver and spleen.
Dendrites are branching extensions that receive synaptic input and carry graded potentials toward the cell body. The axon conducts the outgoing action potential, and the axon terminal releases neurotransmitter.
Mature erythrocytes are anucleate biconcave discs packed with hemoglobin, which binds and carries oxygen. Losing the nucleus allows maximum room for hemoglobin and a shape suited to capillary passage.
Arterial blood is normally maintained within a narrow pH range of about 7.35 to 7.45 by buffer systems, respiration, and renal regulation. Values below 7.35 indicate acidosis and values above 7.45 indicate alkalosis.
Osteoclasts are large multinucleated cells that resorb bone matrix and release calcium into the blood. Osteoblasts build new bone, and osteocytes are mature cells that maintain the matrix.
The cervical region contains seven vertebrae, labeled C1 through C7, regardless of neck length. The thoracic region has twelve vertebrae and the lumbar region has five.
The mitral valve, also called the bicuspid valve, guards the left atrioventricular opening. The tricuspid valve serves the right side, while the pulmonary and aortic valves are semilunar valves at the ventricular outflows.
The pituitary gland secretes trophic hormones such as TSH, ACTH, and the gonadotropins that control other endocrine organs. Its activity is itself regulated by releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.
The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood, delivering it from the right ventricle to the lungs. The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood back to the heart.