AP Comparative Government and Politics key terms

The permanent institutions that govern a defined territory and population, including the bodies that make, enforce, and interpret rules. It persists across changes of leadership or ruling party.

The set of rules and norms that determine how leaders gain and hold power and how much opposition is allowed. It changes only when those fundamental rules are altered.

The specific group of officials and leaders currently exercising authority within a state. Unlike the regime, it can change through elections, appointments, or coups without altering basic rules.

The principle that a state holds supreme authority within its borders and is not legally subordinate to an outside power. It underlies claims of independence and noninterference.

The widespread belief that a government's authority to rule is rightful and appropriate. A regime with legitimacy can govern with less reliance on coercion than one without it.

The recognized right to give orders and have them obeyed. It differs from raw power because those subject to it accept the ruler's claim to command.

Using force or the threat of force to make people comply. Regimes that rely heavily on it often lack legitimacy and must spend heavily on security forces.

A form of rule in which power is concentrated in a small group or single leader and is not subject to meaningful electoral accountability. Opposition is restricted, though the degree of repression varies widely.

A system in which citizens choose leaders through competitive, regularly held elections and enjoy protected civil liberties, rule of law, and limits on executive power.

A political system combining elected institutions with authoritarian practices. Elections occur, but incumbents use media control, legal harassment, or fraud to make defeat unlikely.

The principle that laws apply equally to rulers and ruled and that decisions are made by known rules rather than arbitrary command. It requires independent courts and predictable enforcement.

A country in which the central government holds most authority and any regional governments exist only at its discretion. Regional powers can be granted or withdrawn by national law.

A country in which power is constitutionally divided between a national government and regional units that have protected authority of their own. Both levels can act directly on citizens.

Transferring specific powers from a central government to regional or local bodies while the center keeps ultimate authority. It can defuse regional demands without creating a full federation.

The official who symbolizes and represents the country, performing ceremonial and unifying functions. The role may be a monarch, a president, or a figurehead with little policy power.

The official who directs the executive branch, sets policy priorities, and manages the cabinet and bureaucracy. In parliamentary systems this is usually the prime minister.

The branch that implements and administers policy, commands the armed forces, and conducts foreign affairs. Its structure and limits vary greatly across the course's countries.

The group of senior ministers who head government departments and advise the chief executive. Its composition and the prime minister's power over it differ between systems.

A legislature organized into two chambers, often with different sizes, terms, and constituencies. Upper houses may review legislation, represent regions, or act as a brake on the lower house.

The body that makes laws, approves budgets, and oversees the executive. Its real influence depends on party discipline, constitutional powers, and the executive's ability to bypass it.

A design in which the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, as in parliamentary systems. The prime minister and cabinet are also sitting legislators subject to removal.

Dividing authority among executive, legislative, and judicial branches so each can check the others. It is most associated with presidential systems where the executive is elected separately.

A legislative motion declaring that the chamber no longer supports the government. If it passes, the prime minister and cabinet must resign or call new elections.

The condition in which courts decide cases according to law without direction from political leaders. It depends on secure tenure, insulated appointments, and respect for rulings.

The power of courts to invalidate laws or official actions that conflict with a constitution. Where it exists, courts can constrain both legislatures and executives.

The fundamental rules establishing government institutions, allocating powers, and often listing citizen rights. It may be a single written document or a mix of statutes and conventions.

The widely shared beliefs, values, and expectations citizens hold about politics and government. It shapes how people participate and what they consider legitimate.

The process through which people acquire political attitudes and habits, beginning in childhood. Families, schools, media, and major events all transmit these orientations.

A person's belief that their participation can influence political outcomes. Low efficacy is associated with apathy, while high efficacy tends to increase turnout and activism.

Actions citizens take to influence politics, such as voting, campaigning, protesting, contacting officials, or organizing. Forms and levels vary with regime type and institutions.

The sphere of voluntary associations, charities, unions, and advocacy groups independent of the state. A vibrant civil society can mobilize demands and check government power.

A system in which the state recognizes a limited set of peak organizations to represent workers and employers, negotiating policy with them. It channels interests officially and can marginalize unaffiliated groups.

A pattern in which many competing groups freely organize and press demands on government without state licensing. Influence is dispersed and shifts with the issue.

The rules that convert votes into legislative seats, including district size, ballot structure, and thresholds. These rules strongly shape party competition and representation.

An electoral method that allocates seats roughly in line with each party's share of the vote, usually in multi-member districts. It tends to favor multiple parties and coalition governments.

An electoral arrangement in which one representative is chosen per district, typically by plurality or runoff. Such districts usually produce fewer, larger parties.

The number and relative strength of parties competing in a country and the pattern of their interactions. It is shaped by electoral rules, cleavages, and legal restrictions.

A system in which one party wins power repeatedly while other parties legally compete but rarely govern. Dominance may rest on organization, patronage, or control of media.

An arrangement in which two or more parties share ministerial posts and govern together, usually because no single party holds a majority. Coalitions require negotiation and compromise on policy.

The share of eligible or registered citizens who actually cast ballots. It responds to registration rules, election competitiveness, compulsory voting, and citizens' sense of efficacy.

The misuse of public office for private gain, such as bribery, embezzlement, or favoritism in contracts. It erodes rule of law and public trust and distorts economic development.

Distributing jobs, contracts, or benefits to supporters in exchange for political loyalty. It can build party organizations but undermines merit-based administration and fair competition.

A relationship in which politicians provide targeted goods or favors to individuals or groups in return for votes or support. It personalizes politics and can weaken programmatic party competition.

Reducing state controls over markets through privatization, deregulation, and openness to trade and investment. Such reforms are often adopted to spur growth but can raise inequality and political backlash.

Selling state-owned enterprises or assets to private owners. It aims to improve efficiency and raise revenue but may concentrate wealth and reduce government capacity to direct the economy.

The interaction between political institutions and economic outcomes, including how governments tax, regulate, and redistribute. It examines who gains from policy choices and why those choices are made.