HSC Ancient History key terms

The study of layers of soil and debris built up over time, where lower layers are generally older; archaeologists use it to establish the sequence of occupation and destruction at a site.

A fast-moving cloud of hot gas, ash and rock travelling close to the ground from a volcano. Successive surges buried Pompeii and killed inhabitants, and their deposits left distinctive layers for excavators.

Organic matter preserved by being burned and sealed off from oxygen, such as bread, nuts, wooden furniture and papyrus. These finds reveal diet, trade and daily life at Herculaneum in particular.

The technique of analysing soil, pollen, seeds and root cavities to reconstruct how ancient gardens were planted and used. It has clarified productive and ornamental gardens in both cities.

The recorded origin of an object, including the place and context in which it was found. Without secure provenance, an artefact loses much of its interpretive and legal value.

A small exploratory trench dug to test what lies beneath a surface or to reach earlier levels. Archaeologists use sondages to understand site formation without removing large areas.

A plaster replica made by pouring liquid plaster into the void left by decayed human or animal remains or by roots. Giuseppe Fiorelli's technique preserved the shapes of victims at Pompeii.

A city block in a Roman town, usually bounded by four streets and containing shops, houses and workshops. Insulae are the standard units used to number and locate buildings at Pompeii.

The townhouse of a wealthy Roman family, typically built around an atrium and peristyle garden. Its size and decoration advertised the owner's status and supported client patronage.

The main entrance hall of a Roman house, often with an opening in the roof and a pool below to collect rainwater. It served as a semi-public reception space for clients and guests.

A room in a Roman house, usually facing the atrium, used by the head of the household for receiving clients and keeping records. Its position let visitors see the owner's status symbols.

A small shop or workshop opening directly onto the street, often with a living space above or behind. Tabernae show the mixture of commerce and residence in urban blocks.

A purpose-built market building, typically with stalls around a courtyard and a central tholos for selling fish and other goods. Pompeii's macellum stood near the forum.

The central open square of a Roman town, surrounded by civic, commercial and religious buildings. It was the focus of politics, law, trade and public ceremony.

The practice of wealthy citizens funding public buildings, games or amenities in exchange for honour and influence. Inscriptions at Pompeii and Herculaneum record such gifts and their donors.

A reciprocal relationship in which a powerful patron offered protection, money or favours to clients, who in return gave political support, respect and services. It shaped Roman social and political life.

Painted notices on Pompeian walls recommending candidates for office, sometimes naming the supporter or a guild. They are key evidence for local politics and the influence of associations.

One of the two senior annually elected magistrates who governed a Roman town, presiding over the council and courts. The office was the peak of a local political career.

A member of a town's council, drawn from men of wealth and standing who held office or met a property qualification. Decurions controlled finances and public decisions in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

A voluntary association of craftsmen, traders or worshippers that provided fellowship, burial benefits and sometimes political backing. Collegia appear in inscriptions and electoral notices in Pompeii.

The Italian term for the plaster casts of victims, evoking the emotional and ethical debates about displaying human remains. It raises questions about respect, education and conservation at the sites.

The principles guiding decisions about preserving, restoring and displaying archaeological sites and objects. Debates include whether to reconstruct roofs, rebury excavated areas or limit visitor access.

International recognition given to sites of outstanding cultural or natural value, bringing obligations to protect them and report on their condition. Both cities are listed and subject to monitoring.

The male head of a Roman household, holding legal authority over family members, slaves and property. His role structured household hierarchy and religious observance in Roman society.

The network of clients attached to a patron, who relied on them for support and services. In Roman society it linked households across classes and shaped daily political life.

The Greek household as an economic and social unit, including family, slaves, land and property. Its management and continuity were central to Greek social values.

The system of serfdom in Sparta in which helots, a subject population, worked the land for Spartan citizens and were bound to it. Their labour supported the Spartan military way of life.

The state-run education and training system for Spartan boys, emphasising obedience, endurance and military skill. It shaped Spartan identity and citizenship.

The common mess groups in Sparta where male citizens ate together and contributed food from their estates. Membership signalled full citizenship and reinforced equality among peers.

A compulsory public service imposed on wealthy Athenians, such as funding a chorus, a festival or a warship. It turned private wealth into public benefit and prestige.

Local territorial units in Attica to which Athenian citizens belonged and were registered. Deme membership, not just birth, defined citizenship and participation in public life.

The ruler of ancient Egypt, seen as both king and intermediary between the gods and the people. Royal ideology and administration centred on his authority and ritual duties.

The Egyptian concept of truth, order and balance, which the king was expected to maintain in society and the cosmos. It underpinned royal legitimacy and moral expectation.

The highest official under the pharaoh, overseeing administration, justice and public works. The office was central to governing Egypt and is documented in tomb inscriptions.

Forced labour required by the state for public projects such as canals, pyramids or roads. It mobilised large workforces and reveals how rulers organised resources.

Deliberate messaging used by rulers or elites to shape how people perceive their power and achievements. In antiquity it appears in coins, statues, inscriptions and public monuments.

A formal or informal Roman practice of erasing a disgraced person's name and images from monuments and records. It aimed to remove their memory from public life.

Latin for 'things done', a first-person account of achievements. Augustus's Res Gestae, inscribed at home and abroad, presented his career as service to the state.

The system of rule established by Augustus in which the emperor held power through accumulated offices and titles while appearing to restore the republic. It defined imperial government for centuries.

The legal power of command held by Roman magistrates, including military authority and the right to enforce decisions. Its scope and duration were central to imperial power.

Dominance exercised by one state over others through alliances, military presence or influence rather than direct rule. Athens and Sparta both led alliances that functioned this way.

An alliance of Greek states led by Athens, originally formed to continue war against Persia. Its funds and fleet became instruments of Athenian power.

The conflict between Athens and its allies and Sparta and its allies, lasting from 431 to 404 BC. It ended in Athenian defeat and reshaped the Greek world.

A formal agreement binding states to support one another militarily or politically. Such treaties structured Greek interstate relations and could draw allies into wider conflicts.

A province of the Persian Empire governed by a satrap on behalf of the king. The system allowed a vast empire to be administered and taxed.

A payment of money or goods made by a subordinate state or people to a stronger power. Tribute financed empires and alliances and signalled submission.