QCAA Geography cheat sheet

Inquiry sequence: formulate a question or hypothesis, plan methods, collect primary and secondary data, process and represent, analyse, evaluate, conclude, and communicate.

Primary data comes from fieldwork the student collects directly (surveys, transects, measurements); secondary data comes from published sources such as ABS, BOM, or government spatial portals.

Sampling types: random (unbiased, may miss patterns), systematic (regular interval along a line or grid), stratified (sampling within identified subgroups), and opportunistic.

Position is measured in latitude (0-90 degrees N or S of the equator) and longitude (0-180 degrees E or W of the prime meridian); scale converts map distance to ground distance.

Map types: topographic (contours, relief, grid references), choropleth (shading by value per area), isoline (lines of equal value such as rainfall), dot density, and flow line (movement between places).

Contour rules: closely spaced contours indicate steep slopes; contours crossing a valley form a V pointing upstream; contour interval is the vertical difference between adjacent lines.

Data reliability is judged by source authority, currency, sample size, sampling method, and consistency with independent sources; validity is whether the data actually measures the intended variable.

A GIS layers spatial data (points, lines, polygons) with attribute tables so patterns can be queried, overlaid, and buffered to test spatial relationships.

Plate boundaries: divergent (constructive, mid-ocean ridges, shallow quakes), convergent (destructive, subduction, deep quakes, volcanoes), and transform (conservative, lateral slip, shallow quakes).

Earthquake magnitude is measured on the logarithmic moment magnitude scale; intensity describes observed damage and shaking and decreases with distance from the epicentre.

The Richter-style logarithmic scale means each whole-number increase represents about 32 times more energy released, not merely ten times more shaking amplitude.

Volcanic hazards include lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash fall, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and gas emissions; hazard risk depends on proximity, population density, and preparedness.

The hydrological cycle moves water through evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and groundwater flow; impervious surfaces increase runoff and reduce infiltration.

River discharge equals cross-sectional area multiplied by average velocity; a hydrograph shows lag time (delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge) and rising and falling limbs.

Tropical cyclones form over warm ocean water (above about 26-27 degrees C), require Coriolis effect away from the equator, and weaken rapidly after landfall as moisture supply is cut.

Hazard risk can be framed as risk = hazard x exposure x vulnerability divided by capacity; mitigation includes structural measures (levees, sea walls) and non-structural measures (land-use zoning, warning systems, insurance).

Demographic transition stages: high stationary (high birth and death rates), early expanding (death rates fall), late expanding (birth rates fall), low stationary (both low), and declining (birth rate below death rate).

Population change equals natural increase (births minus deaths) plus net migration (immigration minus emigration); natural increase rate is often expressed per 1000 people.

Population pyramids show age-sex structure; a broad base indicates high fertility and a youthful population, while a narrow base with a wide top indicates an ageing population.

Dependency ratio compares the non-working-age population (under 15 plus 65 and over) with the working-age population (15-64), usually expressed per 100 workers.

Push factors drive migration away from a place (conflict, unemployment, environmental degradation); pull factors attract migrants (employment, safety, services, family links).

Urbanisation is the rising proportion of a population living in cities; it is driven by rural-urban migration and natural increase, and can outpace housing and service provision.

Land use in cities often follows concentric, sector, or multiple-nuclei models, with land value, accessibility, and transport corridors shaping spatial patterns.

Population density equals total population divided by land area; it is an average that can conceal uneven distribution and environmental carrying capacity limits.

Scale concepts: local, regional, national, and global scales interact, so a process at one scale (global warming) produces effects at another (local flooding).

Spatial association is tested by comparing distribution maps or overlaying layers to see whether two phenomena coincide; correlation does not establish causation.

Place is defined by location, site (local physical characteristics), situation (position relative to other places), and the meanings people attach to it.

Sustainability rests on interdependent environmental, social, and economic dimensions; a response that improves one dimension may impose costs on another.

Feedback loops: positive feedback amplifies change (melting ice reduces albedo, increasing warming), while negative feedback dampens change and promotes stability.

Climate graphs combine monthly mean temperature (line) and precipitation (bars); seasonal patterns and hemisphere differences are read from the peaks and troughs.

Development indicators include GDP per capita, literacy rate, life expectancy, and the Human Development Index, which combines income, education, and health.

Environmental change is assessed by comparing data across time (time-series) or space (spatial comparison), identifying trends, anomalies, and rates of change.

A geographical conclusion must answer the inquiry question, cite specific evidence (data values, locations, dates), and state the degree of confidence in the finding.

Evaluation criteria for a response: accuracy, relevance to the question, use of evidence, depth of reasoning, recognition of limitations, and clarity of structure.

Limitations to acknowledge include sample size and bias, data gaps, outdated sources, measurement error, scale mismatch, and assumptions in models.

Graph selection rules: line graphs for continuous change over time, bar charts for comparing categories, scatter graphs for correlation between two variables, and pie charts for proportions of a whole.

A well-labelled map or graph requires a title, units, legend or key, labelled axes or scale, north point, and source acknowledgement.

Correlation is described by direction (positive or negative) and strength (strong, moderate, weak); it must be distinguished from causation in any conclusion.

Comparisons should use consistent units and timeframes; percentage change is calculated as (new minus old) divided by old, multiplied by 100.

A reasoned judgement weighs competing perspectives and trade-offs, then justifies a preferred response using evidence rather than assertion alone.