SACE Stage 2 Geography key terms

The arrangement of features or events across an area, described by their location, density, clustering or dispersal. Geographers map and describe these patterns before explaining what processes produced them.

A relationship in which the locations of two phenomena coincide or overlap more than would be expected by chance. It suggests a possible connection but does not by itself prove cause and effect.

The level of detail or extent at which a phenomenon is examined, from local through regional and national to global. Findings at one scale may not hold at another, so scale shapes interpretation.

An area defined by shared characteristics, such as climate, landform, culture or economic activity. Regions may be formal with clear boundaries, or functional, organised around a centre such as a city and its hinterland.

A location given meaning by the people who experience it, combining physical setting with human attachment, memory and identity. Places are constantly remade by migration, investment and cultural change.

The feelings, meanings and attachments that individuals or communities associate with a particular location. It influences resistance to change, heritage protection and responses to development proposals.

The loss of distinctive local character when landscapes become standardised through globalised retail, architecture and transport. Places may come to look and feel interchangeable, weakening attachment and identity.

Areas that are distant from centres of economic and political power and receive fewer investment, services and opportunities. Peripheral regions often experience out-migration, ageing populations and dependence on core areas.

A model describing uneven development, in which wealth, innovation and decision-making concentrate in core regions while peripheral regions supply labour and resources and remain less developed. Flows of people and capital reinforce the imbalance.

The unequal distribution of income, infrastructure and opportunity between places, produced by historical, economic and environmental processes. It is visible within countries and between them.

The growing interconnection of economies, cultures and societies through trade, investment, migration, communication and transport. It spreads ideas and goods rapidly but can intensify inequality and erode local distinctiveness.

A company that operates production, sales or services in more than one country, often locating each stage where costs are lowest. Such firms shape employment, investment and government policy in host regions.

Investment by a firm or individual in productive assets located in another country, such as factories, mines or offices. It can create jobs and technology transfer but may also produce dependency and profit repatriation.

Development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs, balancing economic, social and environmental goals. It requires decisions about resource use, equity and long-term consequences.

The maximum population or level of use that an environment can support indefinitely without degradation, given available resources and technology. Exceeding it leads to resource depletion, pollution or population decline.

A measure of the land and water area needed to supply a population with resources and absorb its wastes, expressed in global hectares. Comparing footprints with available biocapacity indicates whether demand is sustainable.

A model tracing how birth and death rates change as a society develops, moving from high birth and death rates through rapid growth to low rates and stable or declining populations. It helps explain population structures.

A paired bar graph showing the age and sex structure of a population. Its shape reveals past events such as war or migration and indicates future demand for schools, housing, health care and pensions.

The number of people outside working age, both children and older persons, expressed per hundred people of working age. A high ratio places pressure on workers to fund services and pensions.

The tendency of a population to keep growing after birth rates fall, because a large share of people are entering reproductive age. Momentum explains why population growth lags behind policy change.

The increasing proportion of a population living in towns and cities, driven by rural-to-urban migration and natural increase. Rapid urbanisation can outpace housing, sanitation and transport provision.

The outward, often low-density expansion of a city into surrounding farmland and natural areas. It increases car dependence, infrastructure costs and the loss of productive or ecologically valuable land.

A metropolitan area with a population exceeding ten million people. Megacities concentrate economic opportunity but also face severe challenges in housing, waste, water supply and air quality.

A community of living organisms interacting with each other and with their non-living surroundings, such as soil, water and climate. Energy and nutrients cycle through these components, and disturbance to one part affects others.

The variety of life at genetic, species and ecosystem levels. High biodiversity supports resilience to change, while habitat loss, invasive species and pollution reduce it and weaken ecosystem function.

The benefits people obtain from ecosystems, including food, clean water, pollination, flood regulation and cultural and recreational value. Recognising these services helps justify conservation in economic and social terms.

The decline in the quality and productivity of land through erosion, salinisation, nutrient loss, compaction or contamination. It is often caused by inappropriate farming, deforestation or overgrazing and can be difficult to reverse.

Land degradation in dry areas resulting from climatic variation and human activity such as overcultivation, overgrazing and deforestation. It reduces vegetation cover and the land's capacity to support people.

Adjustments that reduce vulnerability to actual or expected climate impacts, such as sea walls, drought-resistant crops, early warning systems or changed building codes. Adaptation complements efforts to reduce emissions.

Actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions or remove them from the atmosphere, including renewable energy, efficiency, forest protection and carbon pricing. Mitigation addresses the cause rather than the consequence of change.

The degree to which a person, community or place is likely to be harmed by a hazard, shaped by exposure, sensitivity and capacity to cope. Poverty and poor infrastructure typically increase vulnerability.

The capacity of a system or community to absorb disturbance and recover or reorganise while retaining essential functions. It depends on diversity, preparedness, social networks and access to resources.

The probability of harmful consequences from an event, combining the likelihood of the hazard with exposure and vulnerability. Risk can be reduced by planning, land-use controls and preparedness, not only by controlling hazards.

A map that shades administrative areas according to the value of a variable, such as population density or unemployment. It is effective for showing broad regional patterns but can hide variation within areas.

Software for storing, combining and analysing spatial data in layers to reveal patterns and support decisions. It allows overlays, buffers and suitability modelling that would be impractical by hand.

A statistical measure of how closely two variables vary together, ranging from strong positive to strong negative. Correlation does not establish causation, so explanation requires further evidence and reasoning.

Selecting a subset of cases or sites to represent a larger population. Methods such as random, systematic, stratified or opportunistic sampling affect how representative and reliable the findings are.

Collecting primary data in the real environment through measurement, observation, mapping, interviews or surveys. Careful design, recording and repeat measurement improve the reliability of the evidence gathered.

Information collected directly by the investigator for a particular inquiry, such as survey responses, field measurements or photographs. It is tailored to the question but costly in time and effort.

Information gathered by others and reused, such as census figures, satellite imagery or government reports. It is quick and often broad in coverage but may be outdated, incomplete or defined differently.