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SACE Stage 2 Psychology study materials
SACE Stage 2 Psychology study resources

SACE Stage 2 Psychology practice questions

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Question 1School assessment

In classical conditioning, what is the term for a stimulus that initially produces no specific response before being paired with an unconditioned stimulus?

  1. Unconditioned response
  2. Neutral stimulus Correct answer.
  3. Conditioned response
  4. Reinforcing stimulus

Explanation

A neutral stimulus is one that, at the outset of conditioning, does not elicit the target response. Through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus it acquires the capacity to trigger a learned response and becomes a conditioned stimulus. The other terms name responses or consequences rather than a pre-training stimulus.

Question 2School assessment

Which schedule of reinforcement typically produces the highest, most consistent rate of responding with strong resistance to extinction?

  1. Variable interval
  2. Fixed ratio
  3. Variable ratio Correct answer.
  4. Fixed interval

Explanation

Variable ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, which sustains high and steady responding and makes extinction slow because the learner cannot predict when the next reward arrives. Interval schedules are tied to time and produce characteristic pauses after reinforcement.

Question 3School assessment

A student studies in a quiet room and later performs well on a test taken in that same quiet room. This best illustrates which memory principle?

  1. Serial position effect
  2. Spacing effect
  3. Proactive interference
  4. Encoding specificity Correct answer.

Explanation

Encoding specificity holds that retrieval is most effective when the context at recall matches the context at encoding. Studying and testing in the same quiet room provides a matching context cue that aids recall. The other principles concern timing of study or interference, not context matching.

Question 4School assessment

According to the multi-store model of memory, which store has a very limited capacity of roughly seven items and a duration of about 18 to 30 seconds without rehearsal?

  1. Procedural memory
  2. Short-term memory Correct answer.
  3. Long-term memory
  4. Sensory register

Explanation

The multi-store model describes short-term memory as a limited-capacity store holding around seven chunks for roughly 18 to 30 seconds unless rehearsal maintains the information. Sensory memory is briefer still, and long-term memory has essentially unlimited capacity.

Question 5School assessment

Which of the following best describes the role of the amygdala in emotional processing?

  1. It primarily regulates balance and coordinated movement.
  2. It attaches emotional significance to stimuli, especially fear. Correct answer.
  3. It consolidates declarative facts into long-term storage.
  4. It controls the production of speech sounds.

Explanation

The amygdala evaluates the emotional relevance of stimuli and is especially associated with fear learning and threat detection. It helps tag experiences as emotionally significant, which can influence memory and behaviour. Motor coordination, factual consolidation, and speech production are handled by other structures.

Question 6School assessment

A researcher wants to determine whether a new study technique improves exam scores compared with a control group. Which research design is most appropriate?

  1. A naturalistic observation of students in a library
  2. A controlled experiment with random allocation to conditions Correct answer.
  3. A correlational study comparing hours studied and grades
  4. A case study of one high-achieving student

Explanation

To test whether a technique causes improvement, the researcher needs an experiment that manipulates the technique and randomly allocates participants, allowing control of confounds and causal inference. Correlational and observational designs cannot establish causation, and a single case cannot be generalised.

Question 7School assessment

In a study, participants are told the true purpose of the research and their right to withdraw before giving consent. Which ethical principle is being applied?

  1. Debriefing
  2. Deception
  3. Informed consent Correct answer.
  4. Confidentiality

Explanation

Informed consent requires that participants understand the nature and purpose of the study, any risks, and their right to withdraw before agreeing to take part. Confidentiality concerns protecting data, and debriefing occurs after participation.

Question 8School assessment

Which measure of central tendency is most affected by a single extreme outlier in a data set?

  1. Mode
  2. Mean Correct answer.
  3. Range
  4. Median

Explanation

The mean is calculated using every score, so an extreme value pulls it strongly toward that outlier. The median depends on rank position and the mode on frequency, making both robust to outliers, while range is a measure of spread rather than central tendency.

Question 9School assessment

Which part of the neuron receives incoming signals from other neurons and carries them toward the cell body?

  1. Axon
  2. Myelin sheath
  3. Axon terminal
  4. Dendrite Correct answer.

Explanation

Dendrites are branching extensions that receive chemical signals from neighbouring neurons and conduct them toward the soma. The axon transmits signals away from the cell body, the myelin sheath insulates the axon, and terminals release neurotransmitters.

Question 10School assessment

A person's heart rate increases and pupils dilate when they encounter a sudden loud noise. Which division of the nervous system is primarily responsible?

  1. Central nervous system
  2. Somatic nervous system
  3. Parasympathetic nervous system
  4. Sympathetic nervous system Correct answer.

Explanation

The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system mobilises the body for action, raising heart rate and dilating pupils during arousal or threat. The parasympathetic division calms the body, while the somatic and central systems do not directly produce this autonomic arousal pattern.

Question 11School assessment

According to Piaget, a child who can understand that a quantity of water stays the same when poured into a differently shaped glass has developed which ability?

  1. Object permanence
  2. Conservation Correct answer.
  3. Assimilation
  4. Egocentrism

Explanation

Conservation is the understanding that a quantity remains unchanged despite changes in appearance or container shape, typically achieved in the concrete operational stage. Object permanence develops earlier in infancy, egocentrism is difficulty taking others' perspectives, and assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas.

Question 12School assessment

In Erikson's psychosocial theory, which conflict is central to adolescence?

  1. Industry versus inferiority
  2. Identity versus role confusion Correct answer.
  3. Trust versus mistrust
  4. Intimacy versus isolation

Explanation

Erikson placed identity versus role confusion in adolescence, when young people explore who they are and what they value. Trust versus mistrust belongs to infancy, industry versus inferiority to middle childhood, and intimacy versus isolation to young adulthood.

Question 13School assessment

A child who has been conditioned to fear a white rat later shows fear of a white rabbit and cotton wool. This is best explained by which process?

  1. Stimulus discrimination
  2. Spontaneous recovery
  3. Extinction
  4. Stimulus generalisation Correct answer.

Explanation

Stimulus generalisation occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response. The rabbit and cotton wool share features such as whiteness and softness with the rat, so the fear response spreads to them. Discrimination would be responding only to the original stimulus.

Question 14School assessment

Which statement best reflects the behaviourist view of language acquisition?

  1. Children are born with an innate language acquisition device.
  2. Grammar emerges from an inborn universal grammar shared by all humans.
  3. Language develops through a fixed sequence of cognitive stages regardless of input.
  4. Language is learned through reinforcement, imitation and association. Correct answer.

Explanation

Behaviourists such as Skinner argued that language is acquired through operant conditioning, imitation and association, with caregivers reinforcing approximations of words. The other options describe nativist or cognitive-developmental positions that emphasise innate structures rather than environmental shaping.

Question 15School assessment

Which type of memory holds information for a very brief period and is tied to a specific sense such as vision or hearing?

  1. Sensory memory Correct answer.
  2. Episodic memory
  3. Semantic memory
  4. Working memory

Explanation

Sensory memory is the brief storage of raw sensory information, with iconic memory for visual input and echoic memory for auditory input. Working memory manipulates information, and episodic and semantic memory are long-term stores for events and facts respectively.

Question 16School assessment

A researcher finds a correlation of -0.75 between hours of sleep and reported fatigue. Which interpretation is most accurate?

  1. There is no meaningful relationship between sleep and fatigue.
  2. There is a strong negative relationship, with more sleep associated with less fatigue. Correct answer.
  3. The result proves that fatigue causes reduced sleep.
  4. More sleep causes greater fatigue.

Explanation

A correlation of -0.75 indicates a strong negative association: as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease. Correlation alone cannot establish causation or direction, so causal claims about sleep or fatigue are unsupported by this statistic alone.

Question 17School assessment

Which statement accurately describes the difference between a population and a sample in research?

  1. A population is the entire group of interest, while a sample is a subset drawn from it. Correct answer.
  2. Both terms refer to the group actually tested in the study.
  3. A sample is the entire group of interest, while a population is a subset.
  4. A population refers only to participants who complete the study.

Explanation

A population is the full group to which findings are intended to generalise, whereas a sample is the smaller subset actually studied. Researchers use representative samples to draw inferences about the larger population.

Question 18School assessment

A person can describe the steps for riding a bicycle and perform them smoothly, but cannot explain the underlying balance rules. Which type of knowledge is demonstrated by the smooth performance?

  1. Procedural knowledge Correct answer.
  2. Declarative knowledge
  3. Episodic knowledge
  4. Semantic knowledge

Explanation

Procedural knowledge is knowing how to perform skills and is often difficult to verbalise, as seen in skilled bike riding. Declarative knowledge is knowing that something is the case, including semantic facts and episodic events, which are consciously accessible.

Question 19School assessment

Which factor is most likely to increase conformity in an Asch-type line-judgement task?

  1. The majority is large and unanimous. Correct answer.
  2. The participant answers privately rather than aloud.
  3. The participant has high self-confidence in the task.
  4. The task is made easier and more unambiguous.

Explanation

Conformity rises when the majority is large and unanimous because the participant faces consistent social pressure. Private responding, greater task clarity, and higher confidence tend to reduce conformity by lowering perceived social pressure or increasing certainty.

Question 20School assessment

In Milgram's obedience studies, which change to the procedure was associated with reduced obedience?

  1. Having the experimenter wear a lab coat
  2. Moving the experimenter closer to the participant
  3. Increasing the proximity of the learner to the participant Correct answer.
  4. Increasing the authority of the experimenter

Explanation

Obedience declined when the learner was physically closer or in the same room, because the participant could more directly perceive the victim's suffering. Greater proximity of the authority figure and symbols of authority tended to increase obedience.

Question 21School assessment

Which statement best distinguishes prejudice from discrimination?

  1. Prejudice is a behaviour, while discrimination is an attitude.
  2. Prejudice applies only to individuals, while discrimination applies only to institutions.
  3. Prejudice is an attitude or belief, while discrimination is behaviour toward a group. Correct answer.
  4. Both terms describe the same observable behaviour.

Explanation

Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or beliefs about a group, whereas discrimination is the behavioural expression of such attitudes through unfair treatment. Attitudes and behaviour are conceptually distinct, though they often co-occur.

Question 22School assessment

A person who attributes their poor exam result to a lack of ability rather than insufficient study is making which type of attribution?

  1. External, stable attribution
  2. Internal, unstable attribution
  3. Internal, stable attribution Correct answer.
  4. External, unstable attribution

Explanation

Ability is an internal factor because it lies within the person, and it is stable because it is seen as enduring over time. Attributing failure to insufficient effort would instead be internal and unstable, since effort can change.

Question 23School assessment

Which statement best describes the role of the hippocampus in memory?

  1. It generates emotional responses such as fear.
  2. It stores all long-term memories permanently in their final form.
  3. It controls the release of hormones during stress.
  4. It is important for consolidating new declarative memories. Correct answer.

Explanation

The hippocampus is critical for forming and consolidating new declarative memories, particularly episodic ones, before they are stored more broadly in the cortex. It does not permanently house all memories, regulate stress hormones, or generate fear responses.

Question 24School assessment

A researcher reports that a new therapy produced a large improvement, but the study had no control group and participants were volunteers who sought treatment. Which conclusion is most justified?

  1. The results are invalid because volunteers were used.
  2. The therapy caused improvement because participants improved.
  3. The improvement may be due to expectation or natural recovery, so causal claims are premature. Correct answer.
  4. The therapy is proven to be effective for all patients.

Explanation

Without a control group, improvement cannot be attributed to the therapy rather than placebo effects, expectancy, or natural recovery. Volunteer samples may also introduce bias, so causal conclusions are premature even though the study is not automatically invalid.

Question 25School assessment

Which of the following is the best example of negative reinforcement?

  1. A child is told off for shouting in class.
  2. A worker loses a bonus for arriving late.
  3. A headache is relieved by taking medication, making the person more likely to take it again. Correct answer.
  4. A student receives a sticker for finishing homework.

Explanation

Negative reinforcement increases a behaviour by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus, as when taking medication removes a headache and strengthens that behaviour. The other examples involve adding a reward or applying punishment.

Question 26School assessment

Which research method involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable?

  1. The experiment Correct answer.
  2. The correlational study
  3. The naturalistic observation
  4. The case study

Explanation

An experiment is defined by the deliberate manipulation of an independent variable while other conditions are held constant, allowing the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Because of this control, experiments permit causal conclusions rather than merely descriptive ones.

Question 27School assessment

Which type of graph is most appropriate for displaying the frequency of scores in a continuous data set grouped into intervals?

  1. A histogram Correct answer.
  2. A pie chart
  3. A bar chart of categories
  4. A scatterplot

Explanation

A histogram displays continuous data grouped into class intervals, with adjacent bars showing the frequency in each interval. Because the bars touch, it conveys the underlying continuity of the variable, which a categorical bar chart does not.

Question 28School assessment

Which term describes the consistency of a measurement instrument across repeated administrations?

  1. Reliability Correct answer.
  2. Standardisation
  3. Objectivity
  4. Validity

Explanation

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure, such as producing similar results on repeated occasions. Validity, by contrast, concerns whether the instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

Question 29School assessment

Which structure of the brain is most closely associated with regulating basic survival functions such as breathing and heart rate?

  1. The medulla Correct answer.
  2. The amygdala
  3. The cerebellum
  4. The corpus callosum

Explanation

The medulla oblongata, part of the brainstem, controls vital autonomic functions including breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Damage to this region is rapidly life-threatening because these functions are essential.

Question 30School assessment

Which neurotransmitter is most strongly associated with the brain's reward pathway and feelings of pleasure?

  1. Acetylcholine
  2. GABA
  3. Glutamate
  4. Dopamine Correct answer.

Explanation

Dopamine is central to the mesolimbic reward pathway and is released in response to rewarding stimuli, contributing to motivation and pleasure. Its role in reinforcement helps explain addictive behaviour.

Question 31School assessment

In classical conditioning, what is a neutral stimulus called once it reliably elicits a conditioned response?

  1. The unconditioned stimulus
  2. The unconditioned response
  3. The conditioned stimulus Correct answer.
  4. The reinforcer

Explanation

After repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response on its own and becomes the conditioned stimulus. The response it evokes is then the conditioned response.

Question 32School assessment

Which type of long-term memory stores general knowledge and facts about the world?

  1. Semantic memory Correct answer.
  2. Sensory memory
  3. Procedural memory
  4. Episodic memory

Explanation

Semantic memory is a subdivision of declarative long-term memory that holds general knowledge, concepts and facts independent of when they were learned. Episodic memory, in contrast, stores personally experienced events tied to time and place.

Question 33School assessment

Which term describes the tendency to explain other people's behaviour in terms of their personality while underestimating situational factors?

  1. Cognitive dissonance
  2. The fundamental attribution error Correct answer.
  3. The self-serving bias
  4. The halo effect

Explanation

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overattribute others' behaviour to dispositional causes and to overlook situational influences. It is most pronounced when judging other people rather than oneself.

Question 34School assessment

A researcher wants to test whether background music affects reading comprehension. She assigns participants to either music or silence and measures test scores. What is the dependent variable?

  1. The assignment to groups
  2. The choice of music genre
  3. The presence of background music
  4. The reading comprehension test scores Correct answer.

Explanation

The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured and that may change as a result of the manipulation. Here, test scores are measured to see whether they differ between the music and silence conditions.

Question 35School assessment

A researcher studying stress levels recruits volunteers from a university psychology course. Which sampling limitation is most relevant?

  1. The results cannot be analysed statistically
  2. The study cannot include a control group
  3. The sample size is automatically too small for analysis
  4. The sample may not be representative of the wider population Correct answer.

Explanation

Volunteers drawn from a single psychology course are unlikely to represent the broader population in age, education and interests, which limits generalisability. This is a sampling bias concern rather than a problem with statistical analysis or design feasibility.

Question 36School assessment

A test is administered twice to the same group two weeks apart and the two sets of scores are strongly correlated. Which property does this demonstrate?

  1. Test-retest reliability Correct answer.
  2. Inter-rater reliability
  3. Construct validity
  4. Content validity

Explanation

Test-retest reliability is established by administering the same instrument on two occasions and correlating the scores; a strong correlation indicates stability over time. It does not by itself demonstrate that the test measures the intended construct.

Question 37School assessment

In a study, participants who drank caffeine before a memory task recalled more words than participants who drank no caffeine. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. Caffeine intake was associated with higher recall in this study Correct answer.
  2. The no-caffeine group must have misunderstood the task
  3. Memory is unrelated to any physiological factor
  4. Caffeine permanently improves memory ability

Explanation

The finding supports a limited causal claim within the study's conditions: caffeine was associated with higher recall. Generalising to permanent improvement or dismissing the control group's performance goes beyond the evidence.

Question 38School assessment

A student stays up all night to finish an assignment and then feels alert and productive the next morning. Which explanation best reflects the role of the sympathetic nervous system?

  1. It coordinates voluntary muscle movement during fine motor tasks
  2. It slows heart rate to conserve oxygen during rest
  3. It mobilises the body for action by increasing arousal and releasing stored energy Correct answer.
  4. It restores digestion and promotes long-term tissue repair

Explanation

The sympathetic division prepares the body for vigorous activity by raising heart rate, dilating airways and releasing glucose for energy. This arousal can temporarily mask fatigue during demanding situations.

Question 39School assessment

A dog is trained to salivate at the sound of a bell paired with food. After many trials, the bell is presented repeatedly without food and salivation gradually stops. What is this process called?

  1. Discrimination
  2. Extinction Correct answer.
  3. Spontaneous recovery
  4. Generalisation

Explanation

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, causing the conditioned response to weaken and disappear. The learned association is suppressed rather than permanently erased.

Question 40School assessment

A teacher gives students a sticker each time they complete homework, and homework completion increases. This is best described as which consequence?

  1. Negative punishment
  2. Positive reinforcement Correct answer.
  3. Negative reinforcement
  4. Positive punishment

Explanation

Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable consequence after a behaviour, which increases the likelihood of that behaviour recurring. The sticker is added and homework completion rises, fitting this definition.

Question 41School assessment

According to the working memory model, which component coordinates attention and allocates resources among the subsystems?

  1. The phonological loop
  2. The central executive Correct answer.
  3. The episodic buffer
  4. The visuospatial sketchpad

Explanation

The central executive is a limited-capacity control system that directs attention and allocates processing resources to the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. It does not itself store large amounts of information.

Question 42School assessment

A witness's memory of a crime becomes more confident over time after discussing the event with other witnesses. Which concept best explains this?

  1. The misinformation effect Correct answer.
  2. Anterograde amnesia
  3. Proactive interference
  4. Retroactive interference

Explanation

The misinformation effect occurs when post-event information, such as details supplied during discussion, becomes incorporated into memory and can distort recall. Increased confidence does not guarantee accuracy of the recalled details.

Question 43School assessment

A student who fails a test says the exam was unfairly hard, while the same student attributes a good result to personal effort. Which bias is being illustrated?

  1. The bystander effect
  2. The fundamental attribution error
  3. The self-serving bias Correct answer.
  4. The just-world hypothesis

Explanation

The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's successes to internal causes such as effort while attributing failures to external causes such as task difficulty. It protects self-esteem and is distinct from the tendency to overattribute others' behaviour to disposition.

Question 44School assessment

In a group discussion, members initially hold differing views but after discussion adopt a more extreme version of the group's initial position. This is best explained by which phenomenon?

  1. Deindividuation
  2. Group polarisation Correct answer.
  3. Social loafing
  4. Obedience

Explanation

Group polarisation is the tendency for discussion among like-minded members to shift the group toward a more extreme position in the direction of their initial leanings. It differs from simply conforming to a majority view.

Question 45School assessment

A researcher reports an effect with p < 0.05. What does this conventionally indicate?

  1. The observed result would be unlikely if the null hypothesis were true Correct answer.
  2. The result has practical importance in real-world settings
  3. The independent variable caused the change
  4. The sample size was adequate for generalisation

Explanation

A p value estimates the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as those observed if the null hypothesis were true. A value below 0.05 conventionally suggests the result is unlikely under the null, but it says nothing about practical significance or causation.

Question 46School assessment

A study finds a strong negative correlation between hours spent playing video games and sleep quality. Which conclusion is most appropriate?

  1. More gaming is associated with poorer sleep quality, but causation cannot be assumed Correct answer.
  2. There is no relationship between gaming and sleep quality
  3. Poor sleep quality causes increased gaming
  4. Playing video games causes poor sleep quality

Explanation

A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease, but correlational designs cannot identify the direction of causation. A third variable, such as stress, could underlie both patterns.

Question 47School assessment

A researcher tests a new anxiety treatment with 12 participants and finds a large improvement. Which factor most seriously limits the conclusion that the treatment is effective?

  1. The reporting of the effect size
  2. The fact that participants were volunteers
  3. The use of a standardised anxiety scale
  4. The small sample and absence of a control group Correct answer.

Explanation

Without a control group, improvements could reflect placebo effects, regression to the mean or natural recovery, and a sample of 12 provides little statistical power or generalisability. These design weaknesses undermine any causal claim about the treatment.

Question 48School assessment

Which statement best explains why a double-blind procedure reduces bias in a clinical trial?

  1. Neither participants nor assessors know who received the treatment, limiting expectancy effects Correct answer.
  2. The placebo group receives no treatment at all
  3. The researcher analyses only the data that support the hypothesis
  4. Participants are randomly assigned to groups, ensuring groups are equal

Explanation

In a double-blind design, both participants and the researchers assessing outcomes are unaware of group allocation, which prevents expectations from influencing reported symptoms or ratings. This controls expectancy and demand effects that could otherwise inflate apparent treatment benefits.

Question 49School assessment

A student learns Spanish vocabulary in the morning and French vocabulary in the afternoon, then finds the French words interfere with recall of the Spanish words. Which phenomenon is described?

  1. Retroactive interference Correct answer.
  2. State-dependent retrieval
  3. Spontaneous recovery
  4. Proactive interference

Explanation

Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned material disrupts the retrieval of previously learned material, as when later French study hinders recall of earlier Spanish words. The direction of interference distinguishes it from proactive interference.

Question 50School assessment

Which part of a neuron receives incoming signals from other neurons?

  1. Dendrite Correct answer.
  2. Myelin sheath
  3. Terminal button
  4. Axon

Explanation

Dendrites are branching extensions that collect signals from neighbouring neurons and carry them toward the cell body. The axon instead transmits an impulse away from the cell body, so the two structures have opposite roles in neural communication.