Earth and Space Sciences
Core Concepts
Understand Earth's structure (crust, mantle, outer and inner core) and plate tectonics: convection in the mantle drives plates, causing earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building at boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform). Know the rock cycle (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) and the water cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff). Understand Earth's rotation (day/night) and revolution (seasons, caused by axial tilt, not distance). Know the Moon's phases and that gravity governs orbits. Recognize that the solar system formed from a collapsing cloud and that stars produce energy by fusion.
Traps
A frequent trap is attributing seasons to Earth's distance from the Sun; the cause is axial tilt. Another is confusing rotation with revolution. Watch for questions implying the Moon's phases are caused by Earth's shadow (that is a lunar eclipse). Also distinguish weather (short-term) from climate (long-term).
Rule of Thumb
For seasons and phases: identify the tilt or orbital position first, then reason about sunlight angle and illumination.
Worked Example
Earth is actually closest to the Sun in January, yet the Northern Hemisphere has winter then. This shows distance cannot explain seasons. The Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun, so sunlight strikes at a lower angle and days are shorter, reducing heating.