TASC Psychology key terms

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including how people perceive, think, feel, learn, and interact. It relies on systematic observation and evidence rather than intuition alone.

An approach to gaining knowledge that relies on direct observation, measurement, and experimentation rather than logic alone or appeals to authority. Findings must be testable and open to replication by others.

A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables, stated in advance of data collection. It must be phrased so that evidence could potentially disconfirm it.

A precise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study, such as defining aggression by counting hits. It allows other researchers to replicate the procedure and compare results.

Any characteristic, condition, or behavior that can take different values across people or situations, such as age, anxiety level, or test score. Researchers examine how variables relate to or influence one another.

The factor that a researcher deliberately manipulates or selects in an experiment to observe its effect. It is the presumed cause, and each participant is assigned to a level of it.

The outcome that a researcher measures to see whether it changes in response to the independent variable. It is the presumed effect and must be defined in measurable terms.

An unintended factor that varies along with the independent variable and can distort the results, making it unclear what caused the outcome. Random assignment and careful design help reduce this problem.

The participants in an experiment who receive the treatment or level of the independent variable being tested. Their outcomes are compared with those of the control group.

The participants in an experiment who do not receive the treatment, or who receive a neutral version of it. They provide a baseline for judging the treatment's effect.

Placing participants into experimental conditions by chance so that groups are similar before treatment begins. This helps ensure that preexisting differences are spread evenly and reduces confounding.

A statistical measure of how two variables change together, ranging from -1 to +1. It reveals association but does not by itself demonstrate that one variable causes the other.

Watching and recording behavior in the setting where it normally occurs, without interference by the researcher. It offers realistic data but gives little control over conditions.

An in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or event using interviews, records, and observation. It provides rich detail but findings may not generalize to the wider population.

A method that gathers self-reported information from a sample of people, often through questionnaires or interviews. Results depend heavily on honest answers and on how representative the sample is.

The consistency of a measurement, meaning it produces similar results when repeated under the same conditions. A measure can be reliable without being valid.

The extent to which a measurement or study actually assesses or demonstrates what it claims to. A test can be consistent yet still fail to measure the intended construct.

A nerve cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. It is the basic building block of the nervous system.

A chemical released by a neuron that carries a signal across a synapse to influence another cell. Examples include dopamine and serotonin, which affect mood, movement, and other functions.

The tiny gap between neurons where chemical signals pass from one cell to the next. Communication across this junction underlies learning, memory, and most nervous system activity.

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses throughout the body. It works with the peripheral nervous system to control behavior and bodily functions.

The process by which sensory receptors detect physical energy, such as light or sound, and convert it into neural signals. It is the raw input stage before the brain interprets the information.

The brain's organization and interpretation of sensory information into meaningful experiences, such as recognizing a face. It depends on both the incoming data and prior knowledge and expectations.

The weakest level of a stimulus that a person can detect about half of the time, such as the faintest sound heard. It marks the boundary between sensing nothing and sensing something.

Learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already produces that response. It explains many automatic emotional reactions.

Learning in which the consequences of a behavior change how often that behavior occurs. Rewards tend to increase a behavior, while punishments tend to decrease it.

Any consequence that increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated. It may be positive, adding something desirable, or negative, removing something unpleasant.

A consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated, either by adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a desirable one. It can suppress behavior without teaching a better alternative.

A perspective holding that psychology should study observable behavior rather than unobservable mental states. It emphasizes how environment and learning shape what people and animals do.

The set of processes used to encode, store, and later retrieve information. It includes sensory, short-term, and long-term storage systems that differ in capacity and duration.

The initial process of transforming information into a form the memory system can store. Deeper, more meaningful processing generally produces stronger and longer-lasting memories.

The process of bringing stored information back into conscious awareness when it is needed. Cues and context can strongly influence how successfully a memory is recalled.

The mental activities involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge, including attention, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. It examines how people think rather than only how they behave.

The general capacity to reason, solve problems, learn from experience, and adapt to new situations. Psychologists debate whether it is one general ability or several distinct ones.

The internal and external forces that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior toward a goal. It can arise from biological needs, personal goals, or environmental incentives.

A complex reaction involving physiological arousal, subjective feeling, and expressive behavior, often shaping how a person responds to events. Emotions influence attention, memory, and decision making.

The relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another. It is shaped by both inherited tendencies and life experience.

The study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others. It covers conformity, persuasion, prejudice, and group dynamics.

Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match those of a group, often in response to real or imagined social pressure. It can occur even when the group's judgment is clearly wrong.

Following the direct commands or orders of an authority figure. It can lead people to act against their own judgment, especially when the authority is perceived as legitimate.