Studies of Religion Level 3 cheat sheet

Religion is a worldview system combining belief in the supernatural or transcendent with a body of practices, ethics, texts and community structures.

Substantive definitions (e.g. Tylor, Frazer) define religion by content: belief in spiritual or supernatural beings; they exclude non-theistic systems such as some forms of Buddhism.

Functional definitions (e.g. Durkheim, Yinger) define religion by what it does - integrating society, answering ultimate questions - and can include nationalism or Marxism as quasi-religions.

A worldview is the framework of assumptions through which a person interprets reality; it may be religious, non-religious or hybrid.

Key characteristics of religion: beliefs and believers, sacred texts and writings, ethics, rituals and ceremonies, and social structure/community.

The transcendent is a reality beyond the material world (God, Brahman, Nirvana); the immanent is a reality within the world, experienced as indwelling presence.

Ritual functions: marking time and life stages, expressing and reinforcing belief, creating social cohesion, and transmitting tradition across generations.

Emic approaches describe a tradition from inside using its own categories; etic approaches analyse from outside using comparative social-scientific categories.

The 2021 Australian Census recorded about 43.9% Christian affiliation, roughly 38.9% 'no religion', 3.2% Islam, 2.7% Hinduism, 2.4% Buddhism and 0.5% Judaism.

Christianity remains the largest tradition by affiliation but has declined in every census since 1971, when about 86% of the population identified as Christian.

Hinduism has been among the fastest-growing traditions, driven largely by skilled migration from India and Nepal since the 1990s.

Religious diversity is concentrated in capital cities; Sydney and Melbourne have the largest Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist and Jewish populations.

Section 116 of the Constitution prevents the Commonwealth from making laws establishing religion, imposing religious observance, or requiring a religious test for office.

Post-war mass migration from Europe, then the Middle East, Asia and Africa, reshaped the religious landscape from a British-Protestant base.

Christian denominations include Anglican, Catholic, Uniting (formed 1977), Presbyterian, Orthodox and Pentecostal groups; Pentecostalism has grown while mainstream attendance has fallen.

Interfaith bodies such as the National Council of Churches and the Affinity Intercultural Foundation coordinate dialogue and disaster relief across traditions.

Christianity's principal beliefs include the Trinity (one God in three persons), incarnation, resurrection, salvation, and the authority of scripture and tradition.

The Nicene Creed (325/381 CE) and Apostles' Creed function as normative statements of belief shared by most denominations.

Sacred texts: the Bible, comprising the Old Testament (Hebrew scriptures) and New Testament (27 books including four Gospels, Acts, epistles, Revelation).

Core rituals are the sacraments; baptism and Eucharist are recognised by most traditions, while Catholic and Orthodox churches recognise seven.

Catholicism centres authority in the Pope and magisterium; Orthodoxy in ecumenical councils and patriarchs; Protestantism in sola scriptura and conscience.

The liturgical year - Advent, Christmas, Lent, Easter, Pentecost - structures time and re-enacts the life of Christ.

Ethical sources include the Ten Commandments, the Sermon on the Mount, natural law (Catholic), and love of neighbour as a summary of the law.

Major historical markers: Council of Nicaea 325, East-West Schism 1054, Protestant Reformation from 1517, Second Vatican Council 1962-1965.

Islam's core beliefs are tawhid (absolute oneness of God), prophethood, revelation, angels, the Day of Judgement and divine decree.

The Five Pillars: shahada (declaration of faith), salah (five daily prayers), zakat (almsgiving), sawm (fasting in Ramadan), hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

The Qur'an is understood as the literal, uncorrupted word of God revealed to Muhammad between 610 and 632 CE; it has 114 surahs.

The Sunnah, recorded in hadith collections, provides the Prophet's words and actions as a model for law and ethics alongside the Qur'an.

Sharia is derived from Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma (consensus) and qiyas (analogical reasoning); different schools of jurisprudence interpret these sources.

Sunni and Shia Islam diverged over leadership succession after Muhammad's death; Shia Islam holds to the Imamate and commemorates Ashura.

Ritual practice includes wudu (ablution), the adhan (call to prayer), Friday congregational prayer, and the fast from dawn to sunset in Ramadan.

Major festivals are Eid al-Fitr (end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (coinciding with the hajj); both begin with communal prayer and charity.

The Three Refuges - Buddha, Dharma, Sangha - mark formal commitment and are recited by lay and monastic Buddhists.

The Four Noble Truths: suffering (dukkha) exists; it has a cause (tanha, craving); it can cease; the Eightfold Path is the way to its cessation.

The Eightfold Path: right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration.

The Three Marks of Existence are anicca (impermanence), dukkha (unsatisfactoriness) and anatta (non-self).

Karma is intentional action producing consequences across lifetimes; rebirth is understood as continuation of conditioning rather than a fixed soul transmigrating.

Theravada, dominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, emphasises the Pali canon and arhat ideal; Mahayana emphasises the bodhisattva ideal and compassion.

Zen (Chan) uses zazen meditation and koans; Tibetan Vajrayana uses tantra, mantras and the guidance of lamas including the Dalai Lama.

Meditation practices include samatha (calming) and vipassana (insight); ethical precepts include not killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct or intoxicants.

The 1947 Census recorded about 88% Christian affiliation and very small non-Christian numbers; by 2021 'no religion' exceeded 38%.

The White Australia Policy (Immigration Restriction Act 1901) was progressively dismantled from 1949 and formally abandoned in the 1970s, enabling non-European migration.

Post-war migration schemes brought Greek, Italian, Polish and later Lebanese, Vietnamese, Indian and Chinese communities, each carrying religious institutions.

The 1970s-80s saw growth in Buddhist and Hindu temples, mosques and Sikh gurdwaras, changing the visible religious landscape of cities.

Government multicultural policy from the 1970s recognised cultural and religious maintenance as legitimate rather than assimilationist.

The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 and anti-discrimination legislation shaped how religious bodies operate in employment and service provision.

Religious schools, hospitals, aged care and welfare agencies remain major providers of education and social services funded partly by government.

Debates after 1945 include religious vilification laws, halal and kosher certification, religious dress in schools, and the balance of religious freedom with other rights.

Inner peace in religious traditions is often described as wholeness, right relationship with the divine, and freedom from destructive desire.

World peace is framed as justice, reconciliation and right relationship between peoples, not merely the absence of armed conflict.

Christian peace teachings draw on the Sermon on the Mount, love of enemies, just war theory (Augustine, Aquinas) and pacifist traditions (Quakers, Mennonites).

Islamic peace concepts include salaam, justice (adl), reconciliation (sulh) and the distinction between legitimate defence and aggression in classical jurisprudence.

Buddhist peace ethics rest on ahimsa (non-harm), metta (loving-kindness) and the recognition that hatred is not overcome by hatred.

Jewish peace teaching centres on shalom as completeness and justice, plus the obligation to pursue peace (rodef shalom) and save life (pikuach nefesh).

Interfaith peace initiatives include the World Council of Churches, Religions for Peace, and Australian bodies such as the Columban Centre for Christian-Muslim Relations.

Individual believers contribute to peace through prayer, charity, dialogue, advocacy and nonviolent resistance; critics note religions have also legitimated violence.

Non-religious worldviews include atheism (no belief in God), agnosticism (knowledge of God is unknown or unknowable), humanism and rationalism.

Agnosticism (Huxley) concerns knowledge claims; atheism concerns belief claims - the two can overlap but are logically distinct.

Secular humanism holds that meaning and ethics derive from human reason, empathy and experience without reliance on the supernatural.

New religious movements (NRMs) are recently emerged groups; 'cult' is a pejorative label, so scholars prefer NRM or 'new religious movement'.

NRMs include offshoots of established traditions (e.g. Pentecostal renewal), syncretic groups, and movements centred on a charismatic leader.

Growth of 'no religion' in Australia reflects generational change, secularisation, institutional distrust and increased religious diversity.

Secularisation theory predicts declining social significance of religion; critics point to persistent religiosity, new movements and public religion.

Believing without belonging (Davie) describes people who hold beliefs but do not attend institutions; 'spiritual but not religious' is a related self-description.