VCE Physical Education cheat sheet

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.

Anatomical position: standing erect, eyes forward, arms at sides with palms facing anteriorly; all directional terms (superior, distal, medial) are referenced to this position.

Three planes and their movements: sagittal plane produces flexion/extension; frontal (coronal) plane produces abduction/adduction and inversion/eversion; transverse plane produces rotation and circumduction components.

Skeletal functions: support, protection, movement (lever action), mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus) and blood cell production (haemopoiesis in red marrow).

Long bone structure: diaphysis (shaft, compact bone), epiphyses (ends, spongy bone with red marrow), periosteum (outer membrane), medullary cavity (yellow marrow).

Joint classification by structure: fibrous (immovable, e.g. skull sutures), cartilaginous (slightly movable, e.g. intervertebral discs), synovial (freely movable, e.g. knee, shoulder, hip).

Synovial joint features: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane and fluid, ligaments, tendons and bursae; synovial fluid reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Muscle contraction: the sliding filament model - actin filaments slide over myosin, sarcomeres shorten, calcium ions and ATP are required; a muscle shortens or develops tension, not the filaments themselves.

Muscle roles: agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes and controls), synergist (assists and stabilises), fixator (stabilises origin); e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow while triceps brachii extends it.

Levers: first class (fulcrum between load and effort, e.g. neck extension), second class (load between fulcrum and effort, e.g. calf raise), third class (effort between fulcrum and load; most common in the body, favouring speed over force).

Acute responses to exercise: increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, ventilation, tidal volume, oxygen uptake, blood flow to working muscle, body temperature, and sweating.

Cardiac output formula: Q = HR × SV (L/min); stroke volume rises with training and during exercise up to a plateau, while heart rate continues to rise to maximum.

Fick equation: VO2 = Q × (a-vO2 difference); oxygen uptake depends on cardiac output and the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

Three energy systems: ATP-CP (phosphagen) system for maximal efforts up to ~10 s; anaerobic glycolysis for high intensity up to ~60-90 s with lactate accumulation; aerobic system for sustained submaximal work.

Fuel use: ATP-CP uses stored creatine phosphate; glycolysis uses muscle glycogen and glucose; aerobic lipolysis and glycogen oxidation dominate as intensity falls and duration rises.

Fitness components: health-related (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, body composition) and skill-related (speed, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time).

Training principles: overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, individuality, variety, recovery and the FITT principle (frequency, intensity, time, type).

Acute injury management: RICER - rest, ice, compression, elevation, referral - for the first 48-72 hours, limiting bleeding, swelling and secondary tissue damage.

Chronic/overuse injuries (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture) result from repeated microtrauma without adequate recovery; management focuses on load reduction, strengthening and graded return.

Skill classification continua: open vs closed environment, gross vs fine motor skills, discrete vs serial vs continuous skills, and externally paced vs self-paced.

Stages of learning: cognitive (frequent errors, needs demonstrations and feedback), associative (refines technique, fewer errors), autonomous (automatic, attention freed for tactics).

Feedback types: intrinsic vs extrinsic; knowledge of results (outcome) vs knowledge of performance (technique); positive, negative and neutral feedback all influence learning.

Practice types: massed vs distributed, blocked vs random, whole vs part, and physical vs mental practice; random and distributed practice generally aid retention and transfer.

Biomechanical principles: force summation (sequential use of body segments), Newton's three laws, centre of gravity, base of support, stability, momentum and levers.

Projectile motion: the optimal release angle for maximum range in the absence of air resistance is about 45 degrees; lower angles suit fast projectiles, higher angles suit slow ones.

Aerobic system sites and yields: glycolysis in the sarcoplasm, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in mitochondria; complete glucose oxidation yields about 30-32 ATP.

Anaerobic glycolysis yields about 2 ATP per glucose plus lactate; the ATP-CP system yields about 1 ATP per creatine phosphate and is depleted within roughly 10 seconds of maximal effort.

Oxygen deficit and EPOC: oxygen deficit is the lag in oxygen uptake at exercise onset; excess post-exercise oxygen consumption repays oxygen debt, restores ATP-CP, and removes lactate.

Fitness testing validity (test measures what it claims), reliability (consistent results on retest), and protocol standardisation (same equipment, warm-up, timing and environment).

Field tests: beep/multi-stage shuttle run (cardiorespiratory endurance), 20 m sprint (speed), vertical jump (power), sit-and-reach (flexibility), 1RM or grip dynamometry (strength).

Training methods: continuous, interval, fartlek and cross-training for aerobic fitness; resistance training for strength/power; plyometrics for power; flexibility methods include static, dynamic and PNF.

Periodisation: macrocycle (season/year), mesocycle (weeks to months), microcycle (about a week); phases typically progress from general preparation to specific preparation, competition and taper.

Tapering: reduce training volume while maintaining intensity for 1-3 weeks before competition to reduce fatigue and optimise performance.

Overtraining signs: persistent fatigue, performance decline, elevated resting heart rate, sleep disturbance, mood changes; management is rest and reduced load.

Nutrition: carbohydrate loading increases muscle glycogen before endurance events; the pre-event meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat and fibre, eaten 2-3 hours before.

Hydration: sweat losses of 1 kg equal about 1 L of fluid; fluid intake should replace roughly 125-150% of losses post-exercise; carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks aid intake and retention.

Performance-enhancing drugs: anabolic steroids, EPO, stimulants and diuretics are prohibited; WADA testing includes urine and blood tests, and therapeutic use exemptions may apply.