WACE Ancient History key terms

Material produced during the period being studied, such as inscriptions, coins, letters, laws or buildings, created by people with direct knowledge of the events described.

A later work that interprets and analyses evidence from the past, such as a modern history book or scholarly article, rather than originating in the period itself.

The documented history of where an object or text came from and who owned it, used to judge whether evidence is genuine and reliable.

The study of layers of soil and debris on an archaeological site, where lower layers are generally older, allowing finds to be placed in sequence.

A dating method that arranges artefacts or styles in a sequence of gradual change, often used when absolute dates are unavailable.

Dating by counting and matching tree-ring patterns, which vary with climate each year and can give precise calendar dates for timber.

A scientific technique measuring the decay of carbon-14 in once-living material to estimate its age, usually expressed as a range with margins of error.

The study of inscriptions carved or painted on stone, metal or other durable surfaces, a major source for laws, dedications and public records.

The deciphering and study of texts written on papyrus, which survive mainly in dry conditions such as Egypt and preserve private letters and documents.

The study of coins, including their designs, inscriptions, metal content and find spots, used for dating, trade and political propaganda.

The analysis of images and symbols in art to identify figures, meanings and messages, such as recognising a deity by attributes like a trident or thunderbolt.

A slant or distortion in a source caused by the author's interests, audience or beliefs, which affects what is included, emphasised or left out.

The intended readers or viewers of a source, whose expectations shape its tone, content and selectivity; a public monument addresses a different audience from a private letter.

A category of text or artefact with its own conventions, such as biography, tragedy, law code or victory monument, which shapes how information is presented.

The study of how history has been written, including changing interpretations, methods and assumptions of historians across different periods.

The re-examination of accepted historical accounts in light of new evidence or new questions, producing revised interpretations that challenge earlier views.

The ideal of judging evidence without personal prejudice; historians debate whether it is fully achievable given that all selection and interpretation involves judgement.

Confirming a claim by checking it against an independent source, which strengthens reliability when two unrelated witnesses or documents agree.

The Greek city-state, comprising an urban centre with its surrounding territory and a community of citizens who governed themselves under shared laws.

Legal membership of a community carrying rights and duties; in Athens it was restricted to free adult males of citizen parentage, excluding women, slaves and foreigners.

A free resident foreigner in Athens who lacked political rights, paid a special tax and often worked in trade or crafts, requiring a citizen sponsor.

The ownership of people as property; in classical Greece and Rome enslaved people worked in households, mines, farms and workshops and had no legal rights.

A social relationship in which a powerful patron gives protection or benefits to a dependent client in return for loyalty, support and services.

The practice of wealthy individuals giving public benefactions such as buildings, games or grain, gaining prestige and political influence in return.

The Athenian assembly of citizens, which met regularly to debate and vote on laws, war, treaties and public spending by majority show of hands.

The Athenian council of 500 citizens chosen by lot each year, which prepared the assembly's agenda and supervised many administrative matters.

Selection for public office by lottery rather than election, central to Athenian democracy because it gave ordinary citizens a chance to hold power.

A system in which political power rests with the citizen body, who decide matters directly or through representatives; Athens practised a direct form.

An Athenian procedure in which citizens voted by scratching a name on a potsherd to exile a prominent man for ten years, guarding against tyranny.

The Roman advisory council of former magistrates, which controlled finance, foreign affairs and legislation in the Republic and gained greater power under the emperors.

The fixed sequence of Roman public offices, from quaestor through praetor to consul, which ambitious men followed to gain status and military commands.

The formal power to command held by senior Roman magistrates, including military authority and the right to enforce obedience, sometimes extended beyond Rome.

The title 'first citizen' adopted by Augustus to describe his position, presenting one-man rule as a restoration of the Republic while concealing its reality.

A grand Roman victory procession through the city, granted to a successful general, blending religious ritual, military display and political prestige.

A heavily armed Greek infantryman fighting in close formation with spear and round shield, whose equipment and service tied military role to citizen status.

A dense formation of infantry standing shoulder to shoulder with overlapping shields and levelled spears, relying on collective discipline rather than individual heroics.

The arrangement and manoeuvring of forces in battle, such as flanking, reserves or feigned retreat, as distinct from the wider strategy of a campaign.

The overall planning of a war's aims and resources, including alliances, supply, timing and choice of theatres, beyond what happens on a single battlefield.

A formal agreement between states to cooperate, often for mutual defence or joint war, which may be equal or dominated by the stronger partner.

A regular payment or goods given by a subordinate state or people to a stronger power, expressing dependence and funding the dominant power's forces.

The extension of control by one state over other peoples and territories, whether through conquest, alliances, colonies or economic pressure.

A territory outside Italy governed by Rome through an appointed official, subject to taxation and military occupation and administered under Roman law.

Deliberately selected or shaped messages, in texts, images or monuments, designed to influence opinion and support a ruler, regime or policy.

The art of persuasive speech and writing, a core skill in ancient education and public life, whose conventions shape surviving speeches and histories.

Belief in and worship of many deities, typical of Greek and Roman religion, where gods were approached individually for particular concerns.

The organised worship of a particular deity or figure at a specific place, involving rituals, festivals, priests and often a temple.

A prescribed sequence of actions, words and offerings performed in religious or civic contexts, believed to maintain proper relations with the gods and community.

The offering of an animal, food or other gift to a deity, usually accompanied by prayer and shared feasting, central to public and household religion.

An object given to a deity in thanks or fulfilment of a promise, often left at a sanctuary and sometimes inscribed with the donor's name.

The practice of seeking knowledge of the future or divine will through signs, such as inspecting entrails, observing birds or consulting an oracle.

The blending of beliefs or practices from different cultures, such as identifying a Greek god with a Roman or Egyptian counterpart.

A text cut or painted onto a durable surface, often public and official, preserving laws, dedications, honours and building records for historians.