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Roman numeral harmony names triads by the scale degree of their root, so the dominant is built on the fifth degree of the scale. In C major this is the G major triad, which contains the leading tone and creates strong pull to the tonic. Chords built on other degrees carry different function names.
A dot adds half the value of the note it follows, so a dotted minim lasts three crotchets rather than two. The dot never doubles the note value; it only extends it by half. This rule applies equally to rests and to notes within compound rhythms.
Two pitches with the same letter name but different octave numbers span a perfect octave, twelve semitones apart. The frequency of the upper note is exactly double that of the lower, which is why the octave sounds so consonant. Other intervals change the letter name as well as the pitch.
Compound duple metre groups six quavers into two beats, each worth a dotted crotchet. The upper number shows six quaver divisions while the lower number shows the quaver as the unit. Performers therefore feel two broad pulses per bar, not six.
Sharps are added in the order F, C, G, D, A, E, B, so three sharps are F sharp, C sharp and G sharp. That collection belongs to A major and its relative minor, F sharp minor. Counting along the sharp order reliably identifies any sharp key.
Mezzo means moderately, so mezzo-forte sits between piano and forte on the dynamic scale. It indicates a comfortable middle-loud level rather than an extreme. Gradual changes are shown by crescendo or diminuendo markings instead.
C to E spans four semitones, the distance of a major third. The interval belongs to the tonic triad of C major, which is why it sounds bright and stable. A minor third would require only three semitones, as in C to E flat.
A triad consists of a root, a third and a fifth, which are formed by stacking two thirds. Seventh chords add a further third above the fifth, giving four notes. Clusters and arpeggios describe other arrangements of pitches.
A relative minor lies a minor third below its major key and shares the same key signature. Three semitones below C is A, so A minor uses no sharps or flats, matching C major. The tonic triads differ even though the scale notes are identical.
Syncopation displaces emphasis onto a normally weak beat or the off-beat between beats. This creates rhythmic tension against the underlying metre. Accenting the strong beats would reinforce the metre rather than disrupt it.
The dominant key lies a perfect fifth above the tonic, so the dominant of G major is D major. Modulation to the dominant is the most common key change in tonal music and adds one sharp. The new key introduces C sharp through its leading tone.
An interrupted cadence, also called a deceptive cadence, substitutes chord vi for the expected tonic after V. The surprise arises because the ear anticipates a perfect cadence but receives a minor chord instead. Perfect and plagal cadences resolve to the tonic in different ways.
Harmonic minor raises the seventh degree by a semitone to create a leading note a semitone below the tonic. In A minor the seventh degree is G, so raising it gives G sharp, which strengthens the dominant chord. The natural minor would keep G natural.
Enharmonic equivalents sound identical on a keyboard but are spelled differently. F sharp and G flat both lie on the same key, one semitone above F and below G. Their spelling depends on the harmonic context in which they appear.
The submediant is the sixth degree of the scale, represented by the numeral vi in a major key. In C major this chord is A minor, which shares two notes with the tonic. The other numerals refer to tonic, subdominant and dominant functions.
The order of flats is B, E, A, D, G, C, F, and a single flat is B flat. One flat indicates F major or its relative minor, D minor. Major keys with flats are identified by the second-to-last flat in the signature.
A sequence restates a melodic or harmonic pattern at a different pitch level, often stepwise. It creates forward momentum and unity without literal repetition. Ostinatos and pedal points sustain material rather than transpose it.
In harmonic minor the second degree is a semitone below the third degree, producing a diminished triad. For example, in A minor the supertonic triad is B diminished, containing B, D and F. This chord commonly functions as a pre-dominant leading to the dominant.
Ritardando is a tempo marking that tells the performer to slow down gradually. It differs from rubato, which involves flexible timing without a permanent tempo change. The marking works alongside dynamic markings but does not affect loudness.
A plain letter with the figure 7 indicates a dominant seventh chord, which is a major triad plus a minor seventh above the root. Cmaj7 instead uses a major seventh interval. The distinction lies in the size of the seventh above the root.
The tonic to the dominant spans seven semitones, a perfect fifth. A semitone step downward is a minor second, the smallest interval in common tonal music. Both intervals must be measured from the actual pitches to confirm their size.
Monophonic texture consists of one melodic line only, whether sung by one voice or many in unison. Homophony adds supporting chords beneath a melody, while polyphony combines independent lines. Texture describes how parts relate, not how many performers are present.
A period pairs an antecedent phrase, which ends unresolved on the dominant, with a consequent phrase that closes on the tonic. The question-and-answer relationship gives the period its balanced shape. Sequences, canons and codas describe other formal or contrapuntal devices.
The notation V/V means the dominant of the dominant, which tonicises the dominant chord. It resolves to V, temporarily treating that chord as a local tonic before the progression continues. This device adds colour and forward motion without a full modulation.
In C major the second degree is D, and stacking thirds above it gives D, F, A and C, a minor seventh chord. The supertonic seventh functions as a pre-dominant, typically leading to V. Its minor quality and added seventh distinguish it from the dominant seventh.
Compound duple time contains two main beats, each divided into three equal parts, and 6/8 fits this pattern exactly. The upper figure 6 shows six quaver divisions grouped as two dotted-crotchet beats.
Three sharps belong to A major and its relative minor, F sharp minor. Because the tonic triad stated is F sharp minor, the key is F sharp minor rather than the relative major.
Scale degrees follow a fixed naming system: tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, leading note. The subdominant is therefore the fourth degree of the scale.
A crotchet equals one beat and a dotted minim equals three beats. Adding the tied values gives four beats of sustained sound.
Legato indicates that notes should be joined smoothly with no noticeable break between them. Staccato, by contrast, requires detached articulation.
A perfect fifth spans seven semitones. Counting seven semitones upward from D gives A, which is also the dominant of D major.
A sharp sign raises the pitch of a note by a semitone while the letter name stays the same. A flat lowers by a semitone and a natural cancels a previous accidental.
Stacking thirds from B in C major gives B-D-F-A. The triad B-D-F is diminished and the seventh B to A is minor, producing a half-diminished seventh chord.
A plagal cadence moves from the subdominant chord to the tonic, often called the amen cadence. It provides a softer close than the dominant-to-tonic perfect cadence.
Three quavers occupying a single beat form a triplet subdivision, dividing one crotchet beat into three equal parts. This is a common triplet figure in simple triple time.
In C major the supertonic seventh is Dm7, the dominant seventh is G7 and the tonic seventh is Cmaj7. The ii-V-I progression uses these diatonic qualities in that order.
Imitation occurs when one part restates a melodic idea presented by another part in close succession. Because the pitch level is unchanged, it is imitation rather than sequence.
A first-inversion triad places the third of the chord in the bass, with the root and fifth above it. This is shown in figured bass by the figure 6.
The harmonic minor scale raises the seventh degree of the natural minor scale to create a leading note. In A, that raised seventh is G sharp, which matches the notes given.
Conjunct motion describes melodic movement by adjacent scale steps, that is, by tones and semitones. Disjunct motion, by contrast, involves leaps larger than a second.
The figures 6/4 indicate that the fifth of the chord is in the bass, which produces second inversion. The intervals above the bass are a sixth and a fourth.
The alternation of a single instrument with the full ensemble is described as solo and tutti contrast. It creates textural variety through changes in performing forces.
A major third spans four semitones, and a diminished fourth also spans four semitones. The two intervals sound identical on a keyboard but are spelled differently.
The whole-tone scale divides the octave into six equal steps of a tone each. It contains no semitones and therefore lacks a leading note or strong tonal pull.
Augmentation lengthens the rhythmic values of a melody, often doubling each note's duration. Diminution is the opposite process, shortening the values.
The exposition introduces the main subjects, with the second subject usually appearing in the dominant or relative major. The recapitulation later restates it in the tonic.
A major dominant chord in a minor key requires a raised seventh degree, which is characteristic of the harmonic minor scale. This creates the leading note needed for a strong dominant function.
A7 is the dominant of D minor, so it functions as V of ii within C major. Such a chord is called a secondary dominant because it tonicises a chord other than the tonic.
A hemiola temporarily regroups the metre so that two beats occupy the space normally taken by three. In 6/8 this creates the feel of three duple beats against the written compound duple.
In a first-inversion tonic chord the bass is the mediant, and in root position the dominant chord's bass is the dominant. The mediant to dominant is a fall of a third.