CAAB PPL Theory cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) applies over the high seas and, unless states file differences, over all signatory territory.

VMC minima in Class C-E airspace at/above 3050 m AMSL: 8 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m vertical distance from cloud.

VMC minima at/below 900 m AMSL in Class C-E: 5 km flight visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of the surface.

Right-of-way order: balloons, gliders, airships, then powered aircraft; aircraft in distress always have priority.

Converging head-on: both turn right. Overtaking: the overtaking aircraft keeps clear, passing to the right.

Landing aircraft on final have priority over aircraft on the ground or in the pattern; lower aircraft on final has priority.

Anti-collision lights required for flight at night; position lights show red left, green right, white aft.

Aircraft must carry documents: certificate of registration, airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and radio licence.

Four-stroke cycle order: induction, compression, power, exhaust; two crankshaft revolutions per complete cycle.

Mixture is richest at full throttle and leans with altitude; at full power, lean to peak EGT then enrich for cooling.

Carburettor icing is most likely at 0-15 °C with high humidity; use carb heat before reducing power.

Magnetos are independent: one magneto failure causes slight power loss and higher EGT; both failed means no ignition.

Alternator failure is shown by zero ammeter charge and a discharge warning; battery alone may last 30-60 minutes.

Static pressure blockage affects airspeed, altimeter and VSI; pitot blockage affects only airspeed.

Hydraulic and electrical systems are usually duplicated; a single bus failure may isolate non-essential loads.

Fuel grade and octane must match the engine; lower octane causes detonation, higher octane is acceptable.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 ft per °C above standard temperature at that altitude.

Take-off and landing distances increase roughly 10 % for each 10 % increase in weight above reference.

Centre of gravity forward of the limit increases stall speed and elevator forces; aft of limit reduces stability.

Moment = mass × arm; total moment divided by total mass gives the CG arm.

Maximum take-off mass, maximum landing mass and maximum zero-fuel mass are separate limits; the lowest applies.

Runway slope of 1 % adds about 10 % to take-off distance uphill and reduces it downhill.

Headwind reduces ground roll; tailwind increases it by about 10 % per 2 kt of tailwind.

Fuel required includes taxi, trip, contingency, alternate and final reserve; final reserve is typically 30 minutes VFR.

Hypoxia symptoms appear near 10 000 ft in unacclimatised pilots; time of useful consciousness at 25 000 ft is about 3-5 minutes.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness and tingling; treat by slowing breathing or breathing into a bag.

Spatial disorientation: trust instruments, not sensations; the leans and graveyard spiral are common illusions.

Night vision uses rods, which need 30 minutes dark adaptation and are poor at high acuity; avoid bright light.

Carbon monoxide from heaters causes headache, drowsiness and cherry-red skin; use cabin heat sparingly and ventilate.

Fatigue degrades reaction time and judgement; duty limits and rest are regulatory, not optional.

Alcohol: allow at least 8 hours bottle-to-throttle and 24 hours after heavy drinking; blood alcohol must be zero.

Stress and workload: prioritise aviate, navigate, communicate; use checklists to reduce omission errors.

Standard atmosphere: 15 °C at sea level, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft, pressure 1013.25 hPa.

QNH is pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is pressure at the aerodrome; QNE is 1013.25 hPa for flight levels.

Transition altitude is where altimeters set to QNE; transition level is the lowest usable flight level.

Cloud types: cumulus (convective, unstable), stratus (stable, low), cirrus (high, ice), cumulonimbus (thunderstorms).

Frontal systems: cold front brings rapid lifting, squalls and showers; warm front brings steady rain and low cloud.

Icing risk is greatest at 0 to -20 °C in visible moisture; supercooled water freezes on impact.

Wind shear and microbursts cause sudden airspeed and vertical speed changes; go around if encountered on approach.

METAR is current weather; TAF is forecast; SIGMET warns of significant weather; AIRMET covers lighter hazards.

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 minute of longitude = 1 nm × cos(latitude).

True course = magnetic course + variation (east is least, west is best); compass heading also corrects deviation.

Wind triangle: heading + wind = track; drift angle = track minus heading; use the 1-in-60 rule.

VOR gives bearing from station (radial); DME gives slant range; TACAN combines both.

ILS localiser gives lateral guidance; glideslope gives vertical guidance; marker beacons indicate distance.

NDB/ADF gives relative bearing; magnetic bearing = relative bearing + aircraft heading.

GPS uses satellites for position; RAIM checks integrity; WAAS/SBAS improves accuracy.

Great circle routes are shortest; rhumb lines have constant track and are easier to fly but longer.

Before take-off: check weather, NOTAMs, fuel, mass and balance, performance, and emergency briefings.

Emergency checklist order: aviate, navigate, communicate; declare emergency on 121.5 MHz if required.

Go-around: apply full power, pitch for climb, retract flaps in stages, and advise ATC.

Engine failure after take-off: maintain control, pitch for best glide, select a landing site, do not turn back below 500 ft.

Fire: shut off fuel, mixture and electrics, use extinguisher, and land as soon as possible.

Ditching: land into wind and swell, parallel to swell, with doors and hatches secured.

Minimum fuel and emergency fuel declarations must be made to ATC; declare PAN PAN or MAYDAY as appropriate.

Passenger briefing includes exits, life jackets, oxygen and no-smoking rules; cabin secure before take-off and landing.

Lift = ½ ρ V² S CL; lift increases with the square of airspeed and linearly with density and wing area.

Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and relative airflow; stall occurs at the critical angle.

Induced drag decreases with speed; parasite drag increases with the square of speed; total drag is minimum at best glide speed.

Load factor n = 1 / cos(bank angle); a 60° bank gives n = 2 and stall speed rises by √2.

Stall speed increases with weight, load factor and altitude (density); it is independent of bank alone.

Adverse yaw: aileron drag causes yaw opposite to roll; use coordinated rudder.

Dihedral gives lateral stability; sweepback and fin give directional stability.

Mach number = TAS / speed of sound; critical Mach is where local airflow first reaches Mach 1.

Standard readback: aircraft call sign, instruction, and confirmation; read back all clearances and runway instructions.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett.

Emergency frequencies: 121.5 MHz (VHF) and 243.0 MHz (UHF); distress call MAYDAY, urgency call PAN PAN.

Position report format: call sign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA.

Clearance delivery, ground, tower, approach and centre frequencies are published in the AIP and on charts.

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference.

Lost communication: squawk 7600, continue VFR, land at nearest suitable aerodrome and report.

Use standard phraseology; avoid slang and keep transmissions brief; say 'say again' when unclear.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + contingency (5 % or 3 % with alternate) + alternate fuel + final reserve + taxi fuel.

True airspeed increases about 2 % per 1000 ft for a given IAS; use the navigation computer for density effects.

Wind effect on ground speed: headwind reduces range, tailwind increases range; best range speed is higher with tailwind.

Climb performance decreases with altitude and temperature; service ceiling is where climb rate falls to 100 ft/min.

Landing distance increases with weight, altitude, temperature and tailwind; use the aircraft flight manual tables.

Alternate aerodrome required when destination weather is below the specified approach minima.

Endurance = fuel available / fuel flow; range = endurance × ground speed.

Flight plan must include route, altitude, ETA, fuel and alternate; file before departure and update on changes.