ICAB CL Information Technology key terms

The hardware, software, networks, and services an organisation uses to create, store, process, and move data. It is the technical foundation on which information systems and business processes run.

A combination of people, processes, data, software, and hardware that collects, processes, stores, and distributes information to support decision-making and operations. The system is broader than the technology alone.

Raw, unorganised facts and figures, such as amounts, dates, or codes, that have not yet been interpreted. On its own data has little meaning until it is processed into information.

Data that has been processed, organised, and given context so it is meaningful and useful to a person. Good information is typically accurate, timely, relevant, and complete.

The sequence of operations that converts raw data into useful information, commonly including collection, validation, sorting, calculation, aggregation, storage, and reporting. Manual and computerised methods both follow this cycle.

An organised collection of related data stored so it can be easily accessed, managed, and updated. A database management system controls how users and applications read and change that data.

Software that sits between users or applications and the stored data, handling definition, storage, retrieval, security, concurrency, and recovery. It lets many programs share one database without corrupting it.

A database that stores data in tables of rows and columns, linked by shared key fields rather than by physical pointers. Relationships between tables can be queried using structured query language.

A field or combination of fields whose value uniquely identifies each record in a table. It prevents duplicate rows and is the reference point for links from other tables.

A field in one table that holds the primary key value of a record in another table, creating a link between them. It enforces referential integrity so records cannot point to nonexistent parents.

The assurance that data remains accurate, consistent, and unaltered across its life cycle unless changed by authorised processes. It covers completeness, validity, and correct relationships between records.

Automated checks applied at input to confirm data is complete, properly formatted, and within acceptable limits before it is accepted. Examples include range, format, and check-digit tests.

A central store that consolidates data copied from many operational systems, cleaned and structured for analysis and reporting. It supports management queries without loading live transaction systems.

The use of statistical and pattern-finding techniques on large data sets to uncover hidden relationships, trends, or anomalies. Results support forecasting, fraud detection, and marketing decisions.

An operational system that records and processes routine day-to-day business events, such as sales, payments, and inventory movements, as they happen. It is the main source of detailed data for other systems.

A processing method in which transactions are accumulated over a period and run together as a group, usually on a schedule. It suits high-volume, non-urgent work such as payroll or end-of-day posting.

Processing in which each transaction is handled immediately as it arrives, so records are current at all times. It is essential where instant responses or up-to-date balances are required.

A system that draws on operational data to produce regular summary reports for managers, supporting planning, control, and decision-making. Output is usually structured and scheduled rather than ad hoc.

Integrated software covering core business functions such as finance, purchasing, inventory, and human resources on a shared database. It replaces separate departmental systems so data and processes are consistent.

The shared underlying hardware, networks, operating software, and facilities on which applications run. Its design determines capacity, availability, and how easily systems can be expanded.

Two or more devices connected so they can exchange data and share resources such as files, printers, or internet access. Connections may be wired or wireless and range from local to global.

Delivery of computing services such as storage, processing, and software over the internet on demand, rather than from locally owned equipment. Users pay for what they consume and rely on the provider for maintenance.

Programs written to perform specific tasks for users, such as accounting packages, spreadsheets, or email clients. They depend on system software to control the underlying hardware.

The core software that manages hardware resources, schedules programs, controls files, and provides services to applications. It also enforces user access and security at the device level.

The policies, procedures, and practices an organisation establishes to safeguard assets, ensure reliable records, promote efficiency, and encourage compliance with laws. Controls may prevent, detect, or correct problems.

Splitting incompatible tasks, such as authorising, recording, and holding assets, among different people so no single person can complete a transaction and conceal errors or fraud. It is a key preventive control.

A control applied where data enters a system to ensure it is authorised, complete, and accurate. Techniques include batch totals, validation checks, source document review, and sequential numbering.

A control over the computerised steps that transform input into output, ensuring all transactions are processed once, completely, and correctly. Examples include run-to-run totals and exception reports.

A control ensuring reports and other system output are complete, accurate, and delivered only to authorised recipients. It covers reconciliation of control totals and secure distribution of printed or electronic results.

A chronological record of system activity, such as who accessed or changed what and when, that allows transactions and events to be traced and reconstructed. It supports investigation, accountability, and audit testing.

The set of measures that decides who may enter a system or use a resource and what they may do there. It typically combines identification, authentication, authorisation, and logging of activity.

The process of verifying that a user or device is who or what it claims to be, usually through something known, held, or inherent. Successful authentication precedes any granting of access rights.

The step that determines which resources and actions an authenticated user is permitted to use, based on assigned rights or roles. It limits users to what their duties require.

A secret string of characters a user supplies to prove identity during authentication. Its strength depends on length, complexity, secrecy, and protection from reuse or sharing.

A hardware or software barrier that inspects network traffic and permits or blocks it according to defined rules. It separates trusted internal networks from untrusted external ones such as the internet.

Software written to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorised access to a computer system, including viruses, worms, ransomware, and spyware. Protection relies on updates, filtering, and user awareness.

A deception in which attackers send messages that appear to come from a trusted source to trick recipients into revealing credentials or clicking harmful links. Awareness training and message filtering are common defences.

The practice of copying data to a separate location or medium so it can be restored if the original is lost, corrupted, or encrypted by an attacker. Regular testing of restoration is essential.

Documented arrangements for restoring critical systems, data, and operations within agreed time limits after a major disruption. It sets roles, backup sources, alternate sites, and testing schedules.

An automatically maintained record of events such as logins, errors, and configuration changes on a system. Reviewing logs helps detect intrusions and provides evidence for investigations.