DZI English Language cheat sheet

Subject-verb agreement: the verb matches the head noun of the subject, not a noun in a prepositional phrase ("The box of tools is heavy").

Compound subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb; joined by "or"/"nor", the verb agrees with the nearer subject.

Indefinite pronouns each, either, neither, everyone, nobody are singular; both, few, many, several are plural.

Pronoun case: use subject forms (I, he, she, they, who) for subjects and predicate nominatives; object forms (me, him, her, whom) after prepositions and as direct objects.

Restrictive clauses (essential to meaning) take "that" and no commas; nonrestrictive clauses take "which" and are set off by commas.

Present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present time; simple past marks a finished time ("yesterday").

Comparative adjectives add -er or "more" for two items; superlatives add -est or "most" for three or more.

Dangling modifiers: an introductory participial phrase must describe the subject of the main clause.

Context clues: definition (appositive or dash), example (for instance, such as), contrast (but, unlike, however), and inference from surrounding logic.

Denotation is a word's dictionary meaning; connotation is its emotional shading ("thrifty" positive vs. "stingy" negative).

Affixes carry meaning: un-/in-/non- = not; re- = again; -able = capable of; -tion = act or state; -less = without.

Use the process of elimination on register: a formal passage calls for the most neutral, precise synonym, not slang.

Homophones differ in spelling and meaning (their/there/they're; affect/verb vs. effect/noun).

Analogies test relationship type: synonym, antonym, part-to-whole, cause-to-effect, or category-to-member.

Precise word choice favors the narrower term: "sprinted" over "ran," "murmured" over "said," when detail matters.

Idiomatic prepositions are fixed pairs: "depend on," "comply with," "different from," "capable of."

Main idea = topic + the author's central claim; it is broader than any single supporting detail.

Supporting details answer who, what, when, where, why, or how and directly back the main idea.

Inference must be logically forced by the text; if two readings are possible, the answer choice is too strong.

Tone and mood are signaled by diction, imagery, and punctuation; identify attitude words rather than plot events.

Sequence questions follow time markers: first, then, after, meanwhile, finally.

Cause-and-effect questions hinge on signal words: because, therefore, as a result, consequently, since.

Author's purpose falls into three families: inform/explain, persuade/argue, entertain/narrate.

Eliminate answer choices that are true in general but not stated or implied in the passage.

A complete sentence needs a subject, a finite verb, and a complete thought.

A fragment lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought; a run-on joins two independent clauses with no punctuation or conjunction.

Four sentence structures: simple (one clause), compound (two independent), complex (independent + dependent), compound-complex.

Fix run-ons with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

A dependent clause beginning with because, although, when, if, since, or while cannot stand alone.

Parallel structure: items in a list or comparison must share grammatical form ("hiking, swimming, and biking").

Blank-filling strategy: predict the needed part of speech and logic (contrast vs. addition) before reading the options.

Misplaced modifiers sit next to the word they modify; only, almost, and nearly change meaning with position.

A semicolon joins two independent clauses or separates items in a list that already contains commas.

A colon follows a complete clause and introduces a list, explanation, or quotation.

Commas set off nonrestrictive clauses, appositives, introductory elements, and items in a series.

Do not use a comma to splice two independent clauses without a conjunction.

Apostrophes mark possession (singular: 's; plural ending in -s: s') and contractions, never plural nouns.

Quotation marks enclose exact words; periods and commas go inside closing quotation marks in standard American usage.

Capitalize proper nouns, the first word of a sentence, and titles before names, but not common nouns or directions (north).

Hyphenate compound modifiers before a noun ("a well-known author") but not after ("the author is well known").

A thesis states the central claim in one sentence and usually appears at the end of the introduction.

Paragraph unity: one controlling idea per paragraph, supported by evidence and explanation.

The essay structure is introduction (hook, context, thesis), body paragraphs (claim, evidence, analysis), and conclusion (restated thesis, significance).

Transitions signal relationships: addition (moreover), contrast (however), cause (therefore), example (for instance), sequence (subsequently).

Argument warrants link evidence to the claim; a quotation without analysis does not support a point.

Revision addresses organization, clarity, and evidence; proofreading addresses spelling, grammar, and punctuation.

Active voice ("The committee approved the plan") is more direct than passive voice ("The plan was approved").

Formal writing avoids contractions, slang, second-person "you," and vague qualifiers such as "very" or "a lot."

Identify the speaker's purpose first: to inform, persuade, request, apologize, or narrate.

Listen for discourse markers (however, therefore, first, in conclusion) that reveal structure and emphasis.

Note stressed words and rising or falling intonation; a rising contour often marks a question or uncertainty.

Distinguish literal content from inference: tone of voice and hesitation carry implied meaning.

Numbers, names, and dates are frequent distractors; confirm them against the whole message, not one phrase.

Predict the topic from the opening line, then verify against details that follow.

Summarize the main point in one sentence before answering detail questions.

Recognize common functions: giving directions, making arrangements, expressing polite disagreement, and confirming information.