Bahrain CAA PPL cheat sheet

Bahrain is a contracting state to ICAO; CARs (Civil Aviation Regulations) issued by the Bahrain CAA implement ICAO Annexes for aircraft registered or operated in Bahrain.

A PPL holder may not act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft carrying passengers for remuneration or hire; private operations may share direct costs only.

Class A airspace: IFR only, all aircraft separated by ATC. Class C: IFR separated from all, VFR separated from IFR. Class G: no ATC clearance required, no separation service.

Aircraft must carry: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and (for international flight) a noise certificate where applicable.

VMC minima in Class C airspace below 10,000 ft AMSL: 5 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal, 1000 ft vertical distance from cloud.

Aircraft registration marks are prefixed 'A9C-' for Bahrain-registered aircraft.

A pilot must not fly within 8 hours of consuming alcohol; a blood alcohol level of 0.02% or greater is disqualifying under Bahrain CARs.

Annual check flight / proficiency check and a Class 2 medical (valid 12 months under 40, 6 months over 40 for commercial privileges) are required to maintain PPL validity.

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust. Two crankshaft revolutions per complete cycle.

Detonation: uncontrolled explosive combustion causing high cylinder pressures and temperatures; caused by high manifold pressure, low RPM, high inlet temperature, or low octane fuel.

Pre-ignition: ignition before the spark fires, usually caused by a hot spot (glowing carbon, overheated plug); can be distinguished from detonation by continued running after mixture cutoff.

Magneto check: engine RPM drop should be within limits (typically 75-150 RPM) and roughly equal on both magnetos; a drop exceeding 175 RPM or a dead mag is a no-go.

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient temperatures between -7°C and +21°C with relative humidity above 50%; use carb heat whenever in this range.

A constant-speed propeller maintains RPM via a governor that regulates oil pressure to the propeller hub; increasing RPM control allows oil to flow out and blade angle to decrease.

Load factor n = L/W; in a level 60° bank, load factor = 2g and stall speed increases by sqrt(2) ≈ 1.41 times the 1g stall speed.

Electrical system: alternator charges the battery via a voltage regulator; an ammeter showing continuous high charge indicates a discharged battery or failed regulator.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature at that level in °C).

Take-off and landing distances increase approximately 10% for every 1000 ft of density altitude above sea level (rule of thumb).

Headwind/tailwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between wind and runway). Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle).

Maximum endurance occurs at the speed for minimum power required; maximum range occurs at the speed for minimum drag per unit distance (best L/D for propeller aircraft).

Fuel planning: taxi + trip + contingency (5% of trip) + alternate + final reserve (30 minutes at 1500 ft for VFR) + additional.

Weight and balance: CG must remain within forward and aft limits at take-off, in flight, and at landing; forward CG increases stall speed and reduces elevator authority.

Rate of climb = (excess power / weight) × 60; best rate of climb speed (VY) gives maximum height gain per unit time, best angle (VX) gives maximum height per unit distance.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, impaired judgment, tingling, cyanosis, tunnel vision. Time of useful consciousness at FL180 is approximately 20-30 minutes; at FL400 approximately 15-20 seconds.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling, and chest tightness; treat by slowing breathing rate and, if hypoxia is suspected, using supplemental oxygen.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion (false climb sensation during acceleration) and the leans are the most common causes of loss of control in IMC.

Carbon monoxide poisoning causes headache, drowsiness, and cherry-red skin; treat with 100% oxygen and descent.

The eye's night adaptation takes approximately 30 minutes; use off-centre viewing (10-20° off axis) to use the more sensitive rod cells.

Decompression sickness (bends) symptoms appear 1-6 hours after exposure; treatment is descent, 100% oxygen, and hyperbaric therapy on the ground.

Medication effects: antihistamines and sedatives impair performance; a pilot must not fly while taking medication that impairs judgment or alertness.

ISA: sea level temperature 15°C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98°C/1000 ft (2°C/1000 ft rule of thumb).

QNH is the altimeter setting that reads elevation on the ground; QFE reads zero on the ground; QNE (1013.25) is used above transition altitude.

Standard atmosphere pressure lapse: 1 hPa ≈ 27 ft at low altitude; use the 1 in 30 rule for pressure altitude correction.

In the Northern Hemisphere, wind around a low circulates anticlockwise and inward; around a high, clockwise and outward.

SIGMET: significant meteorological information for hazards to all aircraft (severe turbulence, icing, volcanic ash, thunderstorms). AIRMET is for lighter aircraft hazards.

Wind shear on final approach: an increasing headwind causes the aircraft to drift above glidepath; a decreasing headwind causes the aircraft to sink below glidepath.

Fog forms when the temperature reaches the dewpoint; radiation fog typically forms on clear, calm nights and dissipates after sunrise.

True bearing + variation east (magnetic) = magnetic bearing. Mnemonic: 'Variation East, Magnetic Least' (subtract easterly variation).

Compass deviation is the error caused by aircraft magnetic fields; deviation east means compass reads less than magnetic heading.

1 in 60 rule: track error in degrees ≈ (distance off track / distance flown) × 60.

Time to station (min) = (time between bearings in min × 60) / (change in bearing in degrees).

Wind triangle: heading = track ± drift; drift angle = arcsin(wind speed × sin(angle between wind and track) / TAS).

Great circle distance: 1 minute of arc = 1 nautical mile; 1 degree of latitude = 60 nm.

VOR: radial is the magnetic bearing from the station; a 'FROM' indication means the aircraft is flying away from the station on the selected radial.

Emergency frequency is 121.5 MHz; distress call 'MAYDAY' (x3), urgency call 'PAN-PAN' (x3).

Squawk codes: 7700 (general emergency), 7600 (radio failure), 7500 (unlawful interference).

Wake turbulence separation: stay above and upwind of a preceding heavy aircraft; on take-off, wait at least 2 minutes for a heavy and 3 minutes for a super-heavy.

Go-around decision: if not stabilised by 500 ft AGL in IMC or 300 ft AGL in VMC (or the operator's minima), initiate a go-around.

Aerodrome traffic circuit: crosswind, downwind, base, final; the circuit height is normally 1000 ft AGL unless published otherwise.

Fire on board: shut off fuel and electrical supply to the affected engine, discharge extinguisher, and land as soon as practicable.

Ditching: broadcast MAYDAY with position, set transponder 7700, configure for ditching, and brief passengers on brace position.

Lift L = ½ ρ V² S CL. Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack (typically 15-18°), independent of weight, bank, or airspeed.

Induced drag varies inversely with the square of airspeed and directly with the square of lift coefficient; parasite drag varies with the square of airspeed.

Total drag is minimum at the speed where induced drag equals parasite drag; this is the speed for best glide (best L/D).

Load factor in a level turn: n = 1/cos(bank angle). At 60° bank, n = 2; stall speed increases by sqrt(n).

Bernoulli's principle: as airspeed increases, static pressure decreases. In a venturi, static pressure is lowest at the throat.

Boundary layer separation causes a stall; vortex generators and slats re-energise the boundary layer to delay separation.

Longitudinal stability: the CG must be forward of the neutral point; an aft CG reduces static stability.

Phonetic alphabet: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Readability scale: 1 unreadable, 2 readable now and then, 3 readable but with difficulty, 4 readable, 5 perfectly readable.

Mayday call structure: MAYDAY ×3, callsign ×3, nature of distress, position, altitude, intentions, souls on board.

Position report: callsign, position, time, altitude/flight level, next position and ETA.

VHF frequencies: 121.5 emergency, 122.8 unicom (where published), 123.45 air-to-air (not for ATC).

Transponder codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 hijack. Squawk ident only when instructed.

When radio failure in IMC: squawk 7600, continue on the last assigned clearance, and follow the published lost-communication procedure.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus (updrafts only), mature (updrafts and downdrafts, hail, lightning), dissipating (downdrafts only).

Icing: clear ice forms in large supercooled droplets (0°C to -10°C), rime ice in small droplets (-10°C to -20°C), mixed ice between.

Freezing rain indicates a warm front with a temperature inversion; it is a severe icing hazard.

Mountain wave: strong winds over ridges produce lenticular clouds and severe turbulence on the lee side.

Jet stream: core winds exceed 100 kt at FL300-FL400; CAT is most likely on the cold (poleward) side of the jet.

Dewpoint spread of 2°C or less with cooling indicates a high probability of fog or low cloud.

TREND forecasts appended to METAR give expected changes within the next 2 hours; TAF covers 9-24 hours typically.

Magnetic variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north; easterly variation is subtracted from true to get magnetic.

Isogonal lines connect points of equal magnetic variation; the agonic line has zero variation.

ADF/NDB: the needle points to the station; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station.

ILS localiser gives lateral guidance on 108.10-111.95 MHz (odd tenths); glidepath is on UHF 329.15-335.00 MHz.

GPS RAIM availability must be checked before flight; a RAIM prediction is required for IFR operations.

Dead reckoning: track = heading + drift; ground speed = TAS ± wind component along track.

Altimetry: transition altitude is the altitude above which QNE (1013.25 hPa) is used; transition level is the lowest FL available above the transition altitude.

Before take-off: check fuel, weight and balance, weather, NOTAMs, and emergency briefings; complete the pre-take-off checklist.

Engine failure after take-off: maintain control, pitch for best glide (VY or VX as appropriate), select a landing site within 30° of the nose, and do not turn back below 500 ft AGL.

Emergency descent: don oxygen masks, establish maximum rate descent, broadcast MAYDAY, and level off at 10,000 ft or MSA.

Precautionary landing: overfly the selected field at 500 ft to inspect surface and obstacles, then fly a circuit and land into wind.

Passenger briefing must include seat belts, emergency exits, oxygen use, and brace position.

Runway incursion prevention: read back hold-short instructions, and never cross an active runway without explicit clearance.

Post-flight: record defects in the technical log, and do not dispatch an aircraft with an unresolved airworthiness defect.

Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow; it is the primary control of lift.

Aspect ratio = span² / wing area; higher aspect ratio reduces induced drag.

Wingtip vortices are strongest when the aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow; they sink and drift with the wind.

Mach critical number is the free-stream Mach number at which local airflow first reaches Mach 1; it decreases with increased angle of attack.

Dutch roll is a coupled yaw-roll oscillation; yaw dampers suppress it.

Flap extension increases lift coefficient and drag; full flaps increase the stall speed margin requirement and reduce approach speed.

Static stability: positive static stability means the aircraft tends to return to equilibrium after a disturbance.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress causes narrowing of attention and errors.

Fatigue: cumulative sleep debt impairs reaction time and decision-making; controlled rest on the flight deck is regulated.

Hypoxia at altitude: at FL250, time of useful consciousness is approximately 3-5 minutes; at FL350, 30-60 seconds.

Vision: the fovea provides sharp colour vision in daylight; the periphery is better for detecting motion at night.

Hearing: prolonged exposure to aircraft noise causes threshold shift; use hearing protection on the ramp.

Decision-making: use the DECIDE model (Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate) for in-flight problems.

Crew resource management: brief, monitor, and cross-check; assertiveness and closed-loop communication reduce error.

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air): right-of-way rules - the less manoeuvrable aircraft has priority; head-on, both turn right.

An aircraft overtaking another must pass on the right; the overtaken aircraft has right of way.

Landing priority: an aircraft on final approach or landing has right of way over aircraft on the ground or in the circuit.

Aircraft must display navigation lights between sunset and sunrise, and anti-collision lights at all times when engines are running.

VFR flight in controlled airspace requires an ATC clearance; special VFR may be granted in controlled airspace with reduced visibility.

Aircraft must be equipped with a serviceable ELT for international flights where required by the state.

Licence validity: PPL privileges require a valid Class 2 medical and a current biennial flight review (or equivalent under Bahrain CARs).

Hydraulic system: pressure is regulated by a relief valve; a loss of pressure causes gear/flap/brake failure depending on the system.

Pitot-static system: blockage of the pitot tube causes the airspeed indicator to act like an altimeter (increases with altitude).

Static port blockage: the airspeed indicator reads correctly at the altitude of blockage but errs at other altitudes; the altimeter freezes.

Gyroscopic instruments: attitude indicator and heading indicator are vacuum-driven; the turn coordinator is electrically driven.

Fuel: AVGAS 100LL is dyed blue; jet fuel is clear or straw-coloured. Never mix.

Engine oil: check level before flight; low oil causes high temperature and possible seizure.

Landing gear: retractable gear requires a warning horn and a manual extension procedure.

Take-off distance to 50 ft is the certified take-off distance; it must not exceed the available runway plus clearway.

Landing distance from 50 ft is the certified landing distance; it must not exceed the available runway plus stopway.

Crosswind limit: the maximum demonstrated crosswind is published in the AFM; it is not a limitation but a demonstrated value.

Density altitude increases take-off roll, reduces climb rate, and increases true airspeed for a given IAS.

Best glide speed gives maximum range in a power-off glide; it increases with weight by sqrt(weight ratio).

Fuel burn increases with altitude at a given TAS due to richer mixture requirements; lean the mixture for cruise.

Weight and balance: aft CG increases cruise speed but reduces longitudinal stability and increases stall/spin risk.

Standard phraseology: 'roger' means message received; 'wilco' means will comply; 'affirm' means yes; 'negative' means no.

Read-back requirements: clearances, runway assignments, hold-short instructions, and altimeter settings must be read back.

Emergency: if no response on 121.5, try 243.0 (military) or the current ATC frequency.

Position reporting: use the standard format - callsign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA.

ATIS: record the information code (e.g., 'Information Bravo') and advise ATC on first contact.

Squawk codes: 7000 (VFR in some regions), 2000 (not assigned), 0000 (not assigned).

Radio failure in VMC: remain VMC, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and report to ATC by telephone.

Cold front: steep lapse rate, cumulonimbus, squall lines, and rapid clearing after passage.

Warm front: gradual slope, stratiform cloud, steady precipitation, and poor visibility.

Occluded front: combination of cold and warm front characteristics; often produces widespread precipitation.

Isobars close together indicate strong wind; the geostrophic wind is parallel to the isobars.

Foehn wind: warm, dry wind on the lee side of mountains; can cause rapid temperature rise and turbulence.

Sea breeze: forms during the day when land heats faster than the sea; the breeze blows from sea to land.

Radiation fog: forms on clear, calm nights when the ground cools the air to its dewpoint.

Mercator projection: rhumb lines are straight, but great circles are curved; used for navigation charts.

Lambert conformal conic: used for aeronautical charts; scale is constant along standard parallels.

Great circle route: the shortest path between two points on a sphere; initial and final bearings differ.

Wind triangle: solve for heading, ground speed, and drift using the vector sum of TAS and wind.

1 in 60 rule: track error in degrees = (distance off track / distance flown) × 60.

Time to station: T = (time between bearings × 60) / change in bearing in degrees.

VOR/DME: DME gives slant range; at high altitude, slant range exceeds ground distance.

Emergency checklist: aviate, navigate, communicate - in that order.

Engine fire: shut off fuel, mixture, and electrical supply; discharge extinguisher; land as soon as possible.

Cabin depressurisation: don oxygen masks, initiate emergency descent to 10,000 ft or MSA, and broadcast MAYDAY.

Ditching: configure for ditching, brief passengers, and transmit MAYDAY with position and souls on board.

Forced landing: select a field, fly a tight circuit, and land into wind with full flaps.

Runway incursion: read back hold-short instructions and never cross an active runway without clearance.

Post-flight: record defects in the technical log; do not dispatch with an unresolved airworthiness defect.

Critical Mach number: the free-stream Mach number at which local airflow reaches Mach 1; it decreases with increased angle of attack.

Shock stall: caused by airflow separation behind a shock wave; increases drag and reduces lift.

Mach tuck: at high Mach numbers, the centre of pressure moves aft, causing a nose-down pitching moment.

Speed of sound: a = sqrt(γRT); at sea level ISA, a ≈ 661 kt.

Load factor: n = 1/cos(bank); at 60° bank, n = 2; stall speed increases by sqrt(n).

Induced drag: varies inversely with the square of airspeed; parasite drag varies directly with the square of airspeed.

Boundary layer: laminar flow has lower skin friction; turbulent flow resists separation better.

Hypoxia: at FL180, time of useful consciousness is 20-30 minutes; at FL400, 15-20 seconds.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion (false climb during acceleration) and the leans are common in IMC.

Carbon monoxide: causes headache, drowsiness, and cherry-red skin; treat with 100% oxygen.

Night vision: dark adaptation takes 30 minutes; use off-centre viewing to use rod cells.

Decompression sickness: symptoms appear 1-6 hours after exposure; treat with descent, 100% oxygen, and hyperbaric therapy.

Medication: antihistamines and sedatives impair performance; do not fly while taking impairing medication.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress narrows attention and increases errors.

ICAO Annex 2: right-of-way rules - the less manoeuvrable aircraft has priority; head-on, both turn right.

Overtaking: pass on the right; the overtaken aircraft has right of way.

Landing priority: an aircraft on final approach or landing has right of way over aircraft on the ground.

Navigation lights: required between sunset and sunrise; anti-collision lights at all times when engines are running.

VFR in controlled airspace: requires an ATC clearance; special VFR may be granted with reduced visibility.

ELT: required for international flights where mandated by the state.

Licence validity: PPL requires a valid Class 2 medical and a current biennial flight review.

Hydraulic system: pressure is regulated by a relief valve; loss of pressure causes gear/flap/brake failure.

Pitot-static: pitot blockage causes the airspeed indicator to act like an altimeter.

Static port blockage: the airspeed indicator reads correctly at the altitude of blockage but errs at other altitudes.

Gyroscopic instruments: attitude and heading indicators are vacuum-driven; the turn coordinator is electrically driven.

Fuel: AVGAS 100LL is blue; jet fuel is clear or straw-coloured; never mix.

Engine oil: check level before flight; low oil causes high temperature and possible seizure.

Landing gear: retractable gear requires a warning horn and a manual extension procedure.

Take-off distance to 50 ft is the certified take-off distance; it must not exceed the available runway plus clearway.

Landing distance from 50 ft is the certified landing distance; it must not exceed the available runway plus stopway.

Crosswind limit: the maximum demonstrated crosswind is published in the AFM; it is not a limitation.

Density altitude increases take-off roll, reduces climb rate, and increases true airspeed for a given IAS.

Best glide speed gives maximum range in a power-off glide; it increases with weight by sqrt(weight ratio).

Fuel burn increases with altitude at a given TAS due to richer mixture requirements; lean the mixture for cruise.

Weight and balance: aft CG increases cruise speed but reduces longitudinal stability and increases stall/spin risk.

Standard phraseology: 'roger' means message received; 'wilco' means will comply; 'affirm' means yes.

Read-back requirements: clearances, runway assignments, hold-short instructions, and altimeter settings.

Emergency: if no response on 121.5, try 243.0 (military) or the current ATC frequency.

Position reporting: callsign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA.

ATIS: record the information code and advise ATC on first contact.

Squawk codes: 7000 (VFR in some regions), 2000 (not assigned), 0000 (not assigned).

Radio failure in VMC: remain VMC, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and report to ATC by telephone.

Cold front: steep lapse rate, cumulonimbus, squall lines, and rapid clearing after passage.

Warm front: gradual slope, stratiform cloud, steady precipitation, and poor visibility.

Occluded front: combination of cold and warm front characteristics; often produces widespread precipitation.

Isobars close together indicate strong wind; the geostrophic wind is parallel to the isobars.

Foehn wind: warm, dry wind on the lee side of mountains; can cause rapid temperature rise and turbulence.

Sea breeze: forms during the day when land heats faster than the sea; the breeze blows from sea to land.

Radiation fog: forms on clear, calm nights when the ground cools the air to its dewpoint.

Mercator projection: rhumb lines are straight, but great circles are curved; used for navigation charts.

Lambert conformal conic: used for aeronautical charts; scale is constant along standard parallels.

Great circle route: the shortest path between two points on a sphere; initial and final bearings differ.

Wind triangle: solve for heading, ground speed, and drift using the vector sum of TAS and wind.

1 in 60 rule: track error in degrees = (distance off track / distance flown) × 60.

Time to station: T = (time between bearings × 60) / change in bearing in degrees.

VOR/DME: DME gives slant range; at high altitude, slant range exceeds ground distance.

Emergency checklist: aviate, navigate, communicate - in that order.

Engine fire: shut off fuel, mixture, and electrical supply; discharge extinguisher; land as soon as possible.

Cabin depressurisation: don oxygen masks, initiate emergency descent to 10,000 ft or MSA, and broadcast MAYDAY.

Ditching: configure for ditching, brief passengers, and transmit MAYDAY with position and souls on board.

Forced landing: select a field, fly a tight circuit, and land into wind with full flaps.

Runway incursion: read back hold-short instructions and never cross an active runway without clearance.

Post-flight: record defects in the technical log; do not dispatch with an unresolved airworthiness defect.

Critical Mach number: the free-stream Mach number at which local airflow reaches Mach 1; it decreases with increased angle of attack.

Shock stall: caused by airflow separation behind a shock wave; increases drag and reduces lift.

Mach tuck: at high Mach numbers, the centre of pressure moves aft, causing a nose-down pitching moment.

Speed of sound: a = sqrt(γRT); at sea level ISA, a ≈ 661 kt.

Load factor: n = 1/cos(bank); at 60° bank, n = 2; stall speed increases by sqrt(n).

Induced drag: varies inversely with the square of airspeed; parasite drag varies directly with the square of airspeed.

Boundary layer: laminar flow has lower skin friction; turbulent flow resists separation better.

Hypoxia: at FL180, time of useful consciousness is 20-30 minutes; at FL400, 15-20 seconds.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion (false climb during acceleration) and the leans are common in IMC.

Carbon monoxide: causes headache, drowsiness, and cherry-red skin; treat with 100% oxygen.

Night vision: dark adaptation takes 30 minutes; use off-centre viewing to use rod cells.

Decompression sickness: symptoms appear 1-6 hours after exposure; treat with descent, 100% oxygen, and hyperbaric therapy.

Medication: antihistamines and sedatives impair performance; do not fly while taking impairing medication.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress narrows attention and increases errors.