BGCSE Food & Nutrition cheat sheet

Macronutrients supply energy: carbohydrate 4 kcal/g, protein 4 kcal/g, fat 9 kcal/g; alcohol supplies 7 kcal/g but is not a nutrient.

The six nutrient classes are carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals and water; only the first three are energy-yielding.

Energy requirement = basal metabolic rate plus thermic effect of food plus physical activity; BMR rises with lean body mass and falls with age.

Protein-energy malnutrition splits into marasmus (severe energy and protein deficit, gross wasting) and kwashiorkor (protein deficit with oedema, often a distended abdomen).

Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are stored in the liver and adipose tissue; water-soluble vitamins B-complex and C are excreted in urine and need daily intake.

Deficiency markers: vitamin C and scurvy (bleeding gums), vitamin D and rickets (bowed legs), iron and anaemia (pallor, fatigue), iodine and goitre.

Dietary fibre (non-starch polysaccharide) is not digested by human enzymes; it adds bulk, speeds transit and lowers blood cholesterol.

BMI = mass in kg divided by height in metres squared; below 18.5 is underweight, 18.5-24.9 is healthy, 25-29.9 is overweight, 30 and above is obese.

Gelatinisation: starch granules absorb water and swell when heated in liquid, then burst and thicken; on cooling the network sets into a gel.

Dextrinisation is the breakdown of starch into shorter chains by dry heat, producing browning and flavour on toast crusts.

Caramelisation is the oxidation and polymerisation of sugar when heated dry, giving progressively darker colour and a bitter note past about 170 C.

Maillard browning needs an amino group plus a reducing sugar plus heat and low moisture; it browns bread crust but not plain sucrose syrup.

Denaturation unfolds protein without breaking peptide bonds; coagulation then sets it, as in egg white turning opaque and firm.

Emulsions combine oil and water via an emulsifier; mayonnaise uses lecithin from egg yolk, and overheating causes 'breaking'.

Gluten forms when glutenin and gliadin hydrate and are worked; fat shortens gluten strands and gives shortcrust its crumbly texture.

Enzymatic browning in cut fruit is slowed by acid (lemon juice), heat (blanching) or excluding oxygen, since polyphenol oxidase needs all three.

A balanced meal combines a starchy staple, a protein food, a vegetable or fruit, and a source of fat, plus a drink.

Meal plans must meet stated criteria: nutritional balance, variety of colour, texture and flavour, cost, seasonality, equipment available and time.

Estimated energy distribution guideline: about 50-55% from carbohydrate, 15-20% from protein and no more than 30-35% from fat.

Work backwards from the occasion: number of covers, budget per head, dietary restrictions and serving temperature determine the menu.

Texture contrast rules: pair crisp with soft, dry with moist; avoid repeating the same cooking method twice in one menu.

Colour balance rule: aim for at least three distinct colours on the plate, since colour signals vitamin content and stimulates appetite.

High-risk groups needing modified plans are infants, pregnant women, the elderly, diabetics and people with allergies; adjust texture, sugar, salt and allergens.

A time plan sequences tasks by dependency, grouping oven use and chilling steps so hot food is served immediately and cold food stays below 5 C.

Food choice drivers: cost, availability, culture and religion, health status, family preference, advertising, convenience and peer influence.

Label reading priority: ingredient list is ordered by descending weight, so the first three ingredients dominate the product.

'Best before' concerns quality; 'use by' concerns safety and must never be exceeded on perishable foods.

Traffic-light labelling judges per 100 g: high fat is above 17.5 g, high sugar above 22.5 g, high salt above 1.5 g.

Unit price (price divided by quantity) is the only fair comparison between differently sized packs.

Five-a-day guidance equals about 400 g of fruit and vegetables daily for an adult.

Food additives appear as E-numbers: E100-199 colours, E200-299 preservatives, E300-399 antioxidants, E400-499 stabilisers and emulsifiers.

Consumer protection routes are the label, the receipt, the retailer's complaints procedure and the national consumer or standards body.

Knife cuts by size: chiffonade and shred are finest, then julienne, baton, dice, and chunks largest; even size gives even cooking.

Dry-heat methods are baking, roasting, grilling and frying; moist-heat methods are boiling, steaming, poaching and stewing.

Steaming retains more water-soluble vitamins than boiling because there is no leaching into a large volume of water.

Roux stages: equal fat and flour cooked briefly is white roux, longer is blond, longest (nutty smell, darker) is brown roux for gravies.

Pastry rule: keep fat and liquid cold, rub in quickly and rest the dough to limit gluten development and shrinkage.

Yeast needs warmth (about 25-30 C), moisture and sugar to ferment; above about 60 C the yeast is killed and gas production stops.

Whipping egg white traps air; any trace of yolk fat or grease prevents foam formation, and over-whipping breaks the foam.

Standard measuring equivalents: 1 tablespoon = 15 mL, 1 teaspoon = 5 mL, 1 cup = 240 mL, 1 ounce = 28 g.

Danger zone is 5 C to 60 C; bacteria multiply fastest near 37 C, so keep hot food above 60 C and cold food at or below 5 C.

The four cross-contamination controls are separate boards, separate storage (raw below cooked), hand washing and cleaning surfaces between tasks.

High-risk foods are moist, protein-rich items such as cooked meat, dairy, eggs, rice and shellfish; dry foods such as flour are low risk.

Preservation principles are removing water, lowering pH, lowering temperature, excluding oxygen, adding preservatives or applying heat.

Freezing below -18 C stops bacterial growth but does not kill bacteria; thawed food must not be refrozen because ice crystals damage cells.

Drying, salting and sugaring work by osmosis, drawing water out of microbial cells so they cannot multiply.

Canning uses heat sterilisation in a sealed container; a bulging can signals gas from microbial spoilage and the contents must be discarded.

Reheating rule: reheat once, to a core temperature of at least 74 C, and never keep reheated food warm for long periods.

Food security means reliable physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food for all people at all times.

The food chain stages are production, processing, distribution, retail, preparation and consumption, with waste possible at every stage.

Food miles measure distance travelled from producer to consumer; shorter chains usually cut transport emissions and support local farmers.

Fortification adds nutrients lost or missing (flour with iron, salt with iodine); enrichment restores only what processing removed.

Genetically modified foods alter DNA to add traits such as pest resistance; labelling rules and public acceptance differ by country.

Fair trade guarantees a minimum price plus a premium to producers, aiming to stabilise income for small farmers.

Advertising to children shifts preference toward high-sugar, high-fat products; many jurisdictions restrict such advertising during children's programming.

Food aid and subsidies change diets; cash transfers and school feeding programmes are common tools for improving population nutrition.

Bahamian staples include pigeon peas, rice, cassava, sweet potato, plantain, coconut, conch and fresh fish such as grouper and snapper.

Peas 'n' rice with pigeon peas is a national dish; pigeon peas supply protein and fibre, and rice supplies the starchy base.

Conch is a marine mollusc; it must be tenderised (pounded) or slow-cooked, and cracked conch is battered and fried.

Johnny cake is a baked flour, fat and milk dough; the Bahamian version is dense and slightly sweet, unlike the fried johnnycake of other islands.

Coconut milk from grated coconut is the base fat and flavour in many dishes, including conch chowder and rice and peas.

Salt-curing and sun-drying were traditional preservation methods in the islands, used for fish before refrigeration.

Caribbean dietary pattern is shifting toward imported processed food, raising obesity and diabetes rates; traditional roots and legumes are protective.

Cultural food rules matter in planning: Rastafarian ital cooking excludes meat, and many communities avoid pork or restrict foods during religious periods.

A fair test changes one independent variable, keeps all others constant and measures one dependent variable, with a control for comparison.

State a testable hypothesis with a predicted direction, e.g. 'increasing sugar concentration will increase the height of the egg-white foam'.

Repeat each condition at least three times and average results to reduce the effect of random error.

Present results in a table with units in the headings, then plot a line graph with the independent variable on the x-axis.

Evaluate by naming sources of error (measurement, timing, temperature drift) and suggesting one concrete improvement for each.

Sensory evaluation uses a trained or consumer panel with a hedonic scale for liking and a ranking test for preference between samples.

Coursework write-up order: aim, hypothesis, background research, method, risk assessment, results, analysis, conclusion, evaluation.

Risk assessment lists the hazard, who is at risk, the likelihood and severity, and the control measure for each step.

Iron-deficiency anaemia is common in the region, especially in women and young children; pairing iron-rich food with vitamin C improves absorption.

Vitamin A deficiency affects vision and immunity; dark orange and dark green leaves (pumpkin, callaloo) are cheap regional sources.

Iodine deficiency causes goitre and impaired development; iodised salt is the standard population control.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are the leading regional nutrition problems, linked to sweetened drinks and fried imported snacks.

Hypertension control targets salt; processed meats, salted fish and seasoning cubes are major hidden sodium sources.

Dietary management of diabetes centres on consistent carbohydrate portions, high fibre and reduced free sugars rather than total avoidance of starch.

Sugar in baking tenderises by competing with starch for water, aids creaming, and browns through caramelisation and Maillard reaction.

Salt strengthens gluten, controls yeast activity, and adds flavour; too much salt inhibits fermentation.

Fat in pastry shortens gluten, adds richness, and conducts heat; in cakes creaming fat traps air for aeration.

Eggs perform five functions: bind, coat, aerate, emulsify and thicken (as in custard).

Raising agents release gas: baking powder (soda plus acid) releases carbon dioxide in the wet mix and on heating; yeast releases carbon dioxide by fermentation.

Acid ingredients (lemon, vinegar, buttermilk) set milk proteins, activate baking soda and slow enzymatic browning.

Portion costing = ingredient cost per unit multiplied by the quantity used, summed across the recipe, then divided by the number of portions.

Cost per portion plus overheads and a chosen margin gives the selling price; the margin is a percentage of cost or of price, so state which.

Seasonal buying lowers cost and improves quality; local produce in season is usually cheapest and freshest.

Batch cooking and freezing portions reduces waste and cuts cost per serving.

Compare cost per 100 g rather than pack price; larger packs are not always cheaper.

Waste audit: weigh edible waste per recipe and convert to money to justify changes in purchasing or preparation.

Bacteria need food, moisture, warmth, time and correct pH; removing any one condition limits growth.

Spore formers survive normal cooking; cooked rice left warm can grow Bacillus cereus, so cool it fast and refrigerate.

Salmonella is linked to raw poultry and eggs; Campylobacter to poultry; Listeria to soft cheese and chilled ready-to-eat food; E. coli to undercooked meat.

Food poisoning symptoms typically appear 1-36 hours after eating, depending on the organism.

Personal hygiene rules: tie back hair, remove jewellery, cover cuts with waterproof dressing, wash hands before and after handling raw food.

Cleaning removes dirt; disinfection kills microorganisms; both are needed on food contact surfaces.

Conduction transfers heat by direct contact (pan to food); convection by moving fluid (oven air, boiling water); radiation by infrared waves (grill).

Boiling water stays at 100 C at sea level; adding salt raises the boiling point slightly and lengthens cooking time.

Browning requires surface temperature above roughly 140-150 C and low surface moisture; wet food steams instead of browning.

Collagen in tough meat converts to gelatin with long, moist, low heat, which is why stewing tenderises cheaper cuts.

Vegetables should be cooked quickly in minimal water to limit vitamin C loss through heat and leaching.

Resting meat after cooking lets juices redistribute, giving a moister result.

Food waste hierarchy: prevent, redistribute to people, feed animals, compost, then energy recovery, with landfill last.

Methane from food rotting in landfill is a potent greenhouse gas, so composting reduces climate impact.

Animal protein generally needs more land and water per kilogram than plant protein, so shifting some meals to legumes lowers impact.

Sustainable fish choices favour abundant, fast-maturing species and avoid endangered stocks; conch and some grouper stocks are under pressure.

Packaging protects food and extends shelf life but adds waste; reusable and recyclable options reduce the trade-off.

Local, seasonal produce usually reduces transport and cold-chain energy compared with air-freighted imports.

Hedonic scale rates liking from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely); report the mean score per sample.

Ranking test asks panellists to order samples by preference; sum the ranks and apply a statistical test to judge significance.

Triangle test detects whether a difference exists between two samples by asking which of three is the odd one out.

Control all sensory variables: same portion size, same plate, coded samples, same temperature, and water between samples.

Report means with the spread (range or standard deviation) so the reader can judge reliability.

Correlation between two measured variables does not prove one causes the other; state this limitation in the conclusion.

Traditional Caribbean preservation includes salting (codfish, pork), drying (fish, fruit), pickling (peppers, onions) and smoking (fish, meat).

Saltfish must be soaked and boiled to rehydrate and remove excess salt before cooking.

Ground provisions (yams, dasheen, cassava, sweet potato) are starchy staples; cassava must be processed to remove cyanogenic compounds.

Callaloo refers to leafy greens cooked down, often with coconut milk, and varies by island in the exact leaf used.

Spices such as pimento (allspice), nutmeg, thyme and scotch bonnet are central to regional flavour profiles.

Festival and holiday foods (black cake, sorrel drink, ham) are high in sugar or fat and are planned as occasional items.

Infants under six months are fed breast milk or formula only; solids start around six months with iron-rich soft foods.

Pregnant women need extra iron, folate and calcium; folate reduces risk of neural tube defects.

Adolescents have high energy and calcium needs because of growth spurts and bone development.

The elderly need adequate protein and calcium, softer textures, and often less energy because activity declines.

Athletes need extra carbohydrate for fuel and extra fluid; protein needs rise modestly, not dramatically.

Allergy versus intolerance: allergy involves the immune system and can be severe; intolerance is a digestive reaction and is dose-related.

Milk proteins are casein and whey; acid or rennet coagulates casein to make cheese and yogurt.

Evaporated milk has about 60% of its water removed; condensed milk is evaporated and heavily sweetened.

Pasteurisation heats milk to kill pathogens; ultra-heat treatment (UHT) sterilises it for long ambient shelf life.

Eggs are graded by size and freshness; a fresh egg sinks in water while a stale egg floats because the air cell grows.

Egg substitutes and plant milks must be checked for added sugar, calcium and vitamin B12 if used as a dairy replacement.

Lactose intolerance results from low lactase enzyme; lactose-free milk is pre-digested and tastes slightly sweeter.

Vegetarian plans must combine plant proteins (rice with peas, corn with beans) to supply all essential amino acids.

Vegan plans need a reliable vitamin B12 source (fortified foods or supplement), plus iron and calcium planning.

Coeliac disease requires strict avoidance of wheat, barley and rye; oats need certified gluten-free sourcing.

Diabetic meals control portion size and carbohydrate consistency, favour low-glycaemic-index starches and limit free sugars.

Low-sodium plans replace salt with herbs, citrus and spices, and avoid stock cubes and cured meats.

Texture-modified diets (soft, minced, pureed) are for chewing or swallowing difficulty and must still meet nutrient needs.

Refrigerator temperature should be 0-5 C and the freezer -18 C or colder; use a thermometer, not the dial alone.

Store raw meat on the bottom shelf in a covered container so drips cannot contaminate ready-to-eat food below.

Cool cooked food within 90 minutes and refrigerate; large pots should be divided into shallow containers.

Chopping boards should be colour-coded or physically separate for raw meat, ready-to-eat food and produce.

Cleaning schedule principle: clean as you go, and sanitise food contact surfaces before and after each task.

Pest control requires sealed dry storage, no exposed food overnight, and prompt removal of waste.

By law, most packaged foods must list name, ingredients, allergen information, net quantity, storage conditions, date mark and business name.

'Low fat' means 3 g or less fat per 100 g; 'fat free' means 0.5 g or less per 100 g.

'Reduced' means at least 30% less of the nutrient than the standard product, not that it is low.

'No added sugar' does not mean low sugar; the product may naturally contain or use concentrated fruit sugars.

Allergen declaration must name the major allergens (milk, egg, fish, shellfish, nuts, wheat, soy, sesame) clearly in the ingredient list.

Country-of-origin and nutrition panel help compare products, but the ingredient order is the fastest guide to composition.

Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) releases carbon dioxide when heated alone or when an acid is present.

Baking powder is baking soda plus a dry acid plus starch; double-acting powder releases gas at mixing and again in the oven.

Too much raising agent leaves a soapy taste and a coarse, collapsed crumb.

Yeast fermentation converts sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol; the alcohol evaporates during baking.

Kneading develops gluten, which stretches to hold fermentation gas; under-kneading gives a dense loaf.

A warm, moist, draught-free place speeds proving; a cold kitchen slows it and requires longer proofing.

Front-of-pack warning labels and sugar-sweetened beverage taxes are used to steer population diets.

School feeding programmes improve attendance and nutrient intake and can set lifelong food preferences.

Food-based dietary guidelines translate nutrient science into practical advice using local foods.

Fortification programmes are most effective where the deficiency is widespread and the food vehicle is eaten by nearly everyone.

Regulation of marketing to children and reformulation targets for salt and sugar are common policy levers.

Monitoring and evaluation measure whether a policy changed intake or health outcomes, not just whether it was implemented.

Gelatinisation test: heat starch slurries at different concentrations and measure the set height or firmness after cooling.

Enzymatic browning test: treat cut apple pieces with acid, heat, or cling film and compare browning over set time intervals.

Emulsion test: make mayonnaise with varying oil addition rates and record whether the emulsion holds or breaks.

Gluten test: wash dough under running water to remove starch and weigh the remaining gluten.

Vitamin C test: titrate juice against a dye (DCPIP) until the colour changes, and compare volumes to rank vitamin C content.

Record exact masses, temperatures and times so the method can be repeated by someone else.

Digestion begins in the mouth with chewing and salivary amylase breaking starch into maltose.

The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsin, which start protein digestion.

The small intestine is the main site of digestion and absorption; villi increase surface area.

Bile from the liver emulsifies fat; pancreatic lipase then digests it, and fat is absorbed as fatty acids and glycerol.

The large intestine absorbs water and some minerals, and hosts bacteria that ferment fibre.

Water-soluble nutrients pass into the blood to the liver; most fat-soluble products travel via lymph first.

Fruits and vegetables are high in water, vitamins and fibre; they are low in protein and fat.

Cooking softens cell walls by breaking down pectin and cellulose, but overcooking turns them mushy and leaches colour and vitamins.

Adding acid to green vegetables keeps chlorophyll greener; adding alkali speeds the loss of green colour.

Pectin plus acid plus sugar sets jam; insufficient acid or sugar prevents setting.

Blanching vegetables before freezing inactivates enzymes that would otherwise cause off-flavours and colour loss.

Store potatoes and onions cool and dark; store tomatoes at room temperature for flavour, and chill leafy greens.

Match method to equipment available: one oven means staggering baked items, while a steamer frees hob space.

Plan the longest-cooking item first and work backwards from the serving time.

Use passive cooking where safe: bring to the boil, cover, and let residual heat finish, saving fuel.

Batch tasks: chop once for multiple dishes, and measure all ingredients before starting.

Keep a cold-holding plan for salads and desserts, and a hot-holding plan above 60 C for cooked savouries.

Build in a buffer of about 10-15% of total time for delays, and record actual timings for next time.

Hands must be washed with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds, including between the fingers and under nails.

Do not handle food when suffering from vomiting, diarrhoea, or infected skin lesions on the hands.

Waste bins must have lids and be emptied frequently; waste must not be stored near food preparation areas.

Ventilation removes steam and grease, reducing condensation where bacteria can survive on surfaces.

Pests and pets must be excluded from food areas; screens and self-closing doors are standard controls.

Cleaning chemicals must be stored away from food and clearly labelled to prevent contamination and poisoning.

A shopping list based on a meal plan reduces impulse buys and waste.

Compare fresh, frozen and canned forms: frozen vegetables are often cheaper and retain vitamins well.

Own-brand products are usually cheaper than branded equivalents with similar ingredients.

Buying in bulk is only cheaper if the food will be used before spoiling; otherwise waste cancels the saving.

Avoid shopping when hungry, and check date marks and pack condition before buying.

Track spending against a weekly budget and adjust the meal plan rather than cutting protein or vegetables.

Food taboos are culturally defined rules, not nutritional facts; they must be respected in planning.

Halal rules exclude pork and alcohol and require specific slaughter; kosher rules separate meat and dairy.

Many Hindus avoid beef; some are vegetarian, so plan protein from pulses, dairy or fish.

Fasting periods such as Ramadan shift meal timing; plans should ensure hydration and balanced meals at night.

Festival foods carry identity and are shared socially; they can be included in moderation within a balanced pattern.

Migration changes diets: availability of home foods and adaptation to host-country ingredients shape what is cooked.

A conclusion must answer the hypothesis directly, using the data, and state whether it was supported.

Distinguish systematic error (a consistent offset, e.g. an uncalibrated thermometer) from random error (scatter).

Name specific improvements, such as using a digital probe thermometer or standardising portion mass to 0.1 g.

State limitations honestly: small panel size, single trial, uncontrolled room temperature, subjective scoring.

Suggest a concrete extension, such as testing a second variable or repeating with a larger, more varied panel.

Reference background sources properly and keep raw data sheets as an appendix for verification.

Energy balance: weight is stable when energy intake equals energy expenditure; a sustained surplus stores energy mainly as fat.

A deficit of about 500 kcal per day is commonly used to plan gradual weight loss of roughly 0.5 kg per week.

Very low-calorie diets risk nutrient deficiency and loss of lean mass, so protein and micronutrients must be planned.

Physical activity raises expenditure and supports maintenance; it also improves insulin sensitivity and bone health.

Underweight status (BMI below 18.5) increases risk of infection and fatigue and needs nutrient-dense, not empty, calories.

Waist circumference adds risk information beyond BMI, since central fat is more strongly linked to metabolic disease.

Meat proteins coagulate on heating and shrink, releasing juices; slow moist heat converts collagen to gelatin.

Fish needs brief cooking because its connective tissue is weak and it flakes when the protein sets.

Pulses (peas, beans, lentils) are high in protein and fibre but low in the sulphur amino acids, so pair with cereals.

Dried pulses need soaking and thorough boiling; kidney beans must be boiled hard to destroy a natural toxin.

Cured and smoked meats are high in salt and should be occasional rather than staple foods.

Choose fish from sustainable stocks and keep it chilled on ice until cooking.

To analyse a meal, list each ingredient with its weight, look up energy and nutrients per 100 g, and scale to the weight used.

Sum each nutrient across the dish, then divide by the number of portions to get per-serving values.

Compare the per-serving result with the reference intake for the target group to judge adequacy.

Check the energy split across carbohydrate, protein and fat against the guideline proportions.

Identify the limiting nutrient and adjust the recipe (add a vegetable, swap a fatty ingredient) rather than the whole plan.

Report results in a clear table with units and state the source of the food composition data.

Use a probe thermometer to check the core temperature of cooked food, aiming for at least 75 C for poultry and reheated dishes.

Cool food rapidly by dividing it, using shallow containers, or an ice bath, and refrigerate within 90 minutes.

Hot holding must keep food above 60 C; if it drops below, discard after two hours in the danger zone.

Defrost in the refrigerator, in a microwave immediately before cooking, or under cold running water, never on the counter.

Check refrigerator and freezer temperatures daily and record them.

When in doubt about temperature control, discard the food; the cost of waste is lower than the cost of illness.

Advertising techniques include celebrity endorsement, health claims, cartoon characters, price promotions and 'natural' imagery.

Health claims must be authorised and substantiated; vague claims such as 'good for you' carry no defined meaning.

Premium pricing and 'value' packs are marketing devices; compare unit price to judge real value.

Peer and family influence shape food choice strongly, especially among adolescents.

Convenience foods trade time and cost for control over ingredients, salt, sugar and fat.

Reading the nutrition panel per 100 g allows comparison across brands regardless of pack size.

The nutrition transition is a shift from traditional staples to energy-dense, imported, processed foods.

Rising sweetened beverage intake is a major driver of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the region.

Traditional roots, legumes and fish are nutrient-dense and cheaper when bought locally in season.

School and community food gardens reintroduce local produce and teach food skills.

Tourism shapes local food supply, increasing demand for imported foods and raising prices for residents.

Food-based dietary guidelines for the Caribbean emphasise local fruits, vegetables, ground provisions and fish.

Choose a recipe that isolates the variable, so the effect of the change is measurable.

Write the method as numbered steps with exact quantities, temperatures and times.

Pilot the method once to check timing and equipment before the assessed run.

Prepare a results table in advance with columns for each condition and units in the headings.

List all equipment and ingredients before the session to avoid mid-task shortages.

Complete a risk assessment covering heat, sharp tools, electrical equipment and allergens.

Vitamin A supports vision and immunity; sources include liver, pumpkin, carrot and dark green leaves.

Vitamin C aids iron absorption and collagen formation; sources include citrus, guava, peppers and callaloo.

Calcium and vitamin D work together for bone health; sunlight is a major vitamin D source in the tropics.

Iron from meat (haem) is absorbed better than iron from plants (non-haem); vitamin C improves plant iron absorption.

Folate is needed for cell division and is critical before and during early pregnancy.

Zinc supports immunity and wound healing; meat, shellfish, legumes and seeds are sources.