PDO cheat sheet

Knowles andragogy: adult learners are self-directed, bring experience as a resource, are problem-centered, and need immediate relevance; pedagogy assumes dependence and subject-centeredness.

Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan) names three psychological needs - autonomy, competence, relatedness - that drive intrinsic motivation and persistence.

Kolb's experiential learning cycle: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation; learning can enter at any stage.

Bloom's revised taxonomy orders cognitive objectives: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create; verbs signal the intended level.

Merriam and Caffarella frame adult development across biological, psychological, and sociocultural clocks; age alone does not predict learning capacity.

Transformative learning (Mezirow) requires a disorienting dilemma plus critical reflection on assumptions to produce perspective change.

Social learning theory (Bandura): attention, retention, reproduction, motivation; self-efficacy predicts whether a learner attempts a task.

CPD is continuous and cyclical - assess need, plan, learn, apply, reflect - not a one-time event; reflective practice (Schön) distinguishes reflection-in-action from reflection-on-action.

Cognitive load theory (Sweller): working memory holds roughly four to seven chunks; intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load are managed separately.

Needs assessment gap formula: performance gap = desired performance − current performance; a gap must be tied to an organizational or learner outcome to justify training.

Four common needs-assessment methods: survey, interview, focus group, observation; plus document review and advisory panels; triangulate at least two sources.

Root-cause analysis distinguishes skill/knowledge deficits (training is appropriate) from environmental, motivational, or process causes (training alone will fail).

Target audience analysis captures prior knowledge, role, language, accessibility needs, motivation, and available time; each factor changes design decisions.

Program design aligns four levels - organizational goals, learning objectives, instructional activities, and assessment - so every activity maps to a stated objective.

SMART objectives: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; one objective per observable behavior.

Cost-benefit and ROI framing compares program cost (design, delivery, learner time) against measurable outcomes to support approval.

Stakeholder analysis maps influence and interest; high-influence/high-interest stakeholders need early involvement in scope decisions.

Sequencing rules: prerequisite skills before dependent skills; simple-to-complex hierarchies for procedural content.

ADDIE phases: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation; iterative rather than strictly linear in practice.

Dick and Carey systems model: identify goals, analyze instruction, write objectives, develop assessments, develop strategy, select materials, design and conduct formative evaluation, revise.

Merrill's first principles: activation of prior knowledge, demonstration, application, integration, and a task-centered orientation.

Gagné's nine events: gain attention, state objectives, recall prior learning, present content, guide learning, elicit performance, give feedback, assess, enhance retention and transfer.

Backward design (Wiggins and McTighe): identify desired results, determine acceptable evidence, then plan learning experiences.

Constructive alignment (Biggs): intended learning outcomes, teaching activities, and assessment tasks must all target the same verbs.

Chunking and segmenting principles (Mayer): break complex content into learner-paced segments; pretrain key terms before full instruction.

Curriculum mapping records which objectives are taught and assessed where, exposing gaps and unintended repetition.

Prototype and usability-test materials with a small sample before full development to reduce rework cost.

Questioning hierarchy: closed questions confirm facts; open and probing questions surface reasoning; wait time of about three to five seconds increases response quality.

Group formation rules: pairs for low-risk practice, small groups of three to five for discussion, whole group for synthesis; assign roles to prevent social loafing.

The 10-20-10 pacing heuristic for lectures: no more than 10 minutes of continuous talk, 20 minutes of activity or interaction, 10 minutes of reflection or summary.

Formative checks during delivery - polls, show-of-hands, one-minute paper, teach-back - let the facilitator adjust in real time.

Psychological safety (Edmondson) raises willingness to ask questions and admit errors; facilitator behaviors include modeling fallibility and rewarding candor.

Feedback should be specific, timely, and behavior-focused; feed-forward names the next action rather than only judging past performance.

Managing dominant and silent participants: use structured turn-taking, round-robin, and written idea generation before open discussion.

Transfer of learning is supported by action planning, supervisor support, and spaced follow-up rather than the training event alone.

Kirkpatrick's four levels: reaction, learning, behavior, results; evaluation at higher levels requires more time and evidence than lower levels.

Validity is whether an assessment measures the intended construct; reliability is consistency of scores across occasions or raters; reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity.

Criterion-referenced assessment compares performance to a standard; norm-referenced compares learners to each other.

Item analysis metrics: difficulty index p = proportion answering correctly; discrimination index D = p(high scorers) − p(low scorers); values near zero or negative signal weak items.

Rubrics: analytic rubrics score criteria separately; holistic rubrics give one overall judgment; inter-rater reliability improves with anchored descriptors and calibration.

Formative assessment informs learning during instruction; summative assessment certifies achievement at the end.

Phillips ROI model adds a fifth level: convert results to monetary value, isolate training effect, compare to fully loaded program cost.

Pre/post designs without a comparison group cannot rule out maturation, history, or testing effects; use control or comparison groups where feasible.

Community of Inquiry model: social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching presence jointly shape online learning experience.

Mayer's multimedia principles: coherence (remove extraneous material), signaling, redundancy (avoid identical narration and on-screen text), spatial and temporal contiguity, segmenting, modality.

Asynchronous tools (discussion forums, recorded modules) support flexibility and reflection; synchronous tools (live sessions, chat) support immediacy and coordination.

SCORM and xAPI are e-learning interoperability standards; xAPI records learning experiences outside the LMS via statements of actor, verb, object.

Universal Design for Learning: multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression.

WCAG 2.2 conformance levels are A, AA, and AAA; AA is the common procurement baseline; success criteria cover perceivable, operable, understandable, robust.

Blended learning models include rotation, flex, à la carte, and enriched virtual; the model determines where face-to-face time adds unique value.

Learning analytics metrics: completion rate, time on task, attempt counts, and engagement patterns; use them for course improvement and learner support, not surveillance.

Informed consent requires disclosure of purpose, data use, voluntariness, and the right to withdraw without penalty.

Confidentiality and data minimization: collect only what the program needs, store securely, and define retention and deletion periods.

Accessibility is a legal and ethical baseline, not an add-on: captions, transcripts, alt text, keyboard navigation, sufficient contrast, and screen-reader-compatible documents.

Accommodations change how a learner demonstrates knowledge without changing the standard being measured; modifications change the standard itself.

Copyright: fair-use analysis weighs purpose, nature, amount, and market effect; open licenses (CC BY, CC BY-SA) specify reuse terms explicitly.

Bias in assessment arises from culturally loaded items, language complexity, and differential familiarity with technology; review items for construct-irrelevant difficulty.

Professional codes (for example, ATD or ISPI ethical guidelines) emphasize competence, integrity, confidentiality, and avoiding conflicts of interest.

Evaluation of human subjects for research purposes typically requires ethics review or IRB approval before data collection.

Disclosure of AI-generated content and limits on using learner data to train models are emerging professional norms.