Navigation
Navigation tests pilotage, dead reckoning, chart interpretation, compass use, and the wind triangle. The exam expects you to plan a route, calculate heading and groundspeed, estimate fuel and time, and stay oriented without relying solely on a GPS.
Charts and the compass
Read the chart scale, contours, obstacles, airspace boundaries, and magnetic variation. True course is measured on the chart; magnetic heading = true heading minus easterly variation (plus westerly). Compass heading applies deviation from the compass card. 'East is least, west is best' when converting true to magnetic.
Wind triangle
Wind correction angle (WCA) = arcsin(crosswind component / TAS). Headwind or tailwind changes groundspeed: GS ≈ TAS ± the wind component along track, or GS = TAS × cos(WCA) when the crosswind is cancelled. Track is the path over the ground; heading is where the nose points. Always compare planned versus actual checkpoint times.
Fuel, time, and orientation
Fuel required = burn rate × time, plus reserve. Use checkpoints, time, heading, and visual features; note drift and revise. If lost: climb for visibility and radio/navigation reception, circle to identify features, confess, communicate, conserve fuel, and comply with any instructions (the '5 Cs'). GPS is an aid; verify its direct-to track against airspace, terrain, and obstacles.
Worked example
True course 090°, TAS 100 kt, wind 180° at 20 kt, variation 10°E, deviation 2°W. The wind is all crosswind from the right. WCA = arcsin(20/100) = 11.5°, so true heading = 090 − 11.5 = 078.5° (turn into the wind). Groundspeed = sqrt(100² − 20²) = 98 kt. Magnetic heading = 078.5 − 10 = 068.5°M. Compass heading = 068.5 + 2 = 070.5°C, because westerly deviation is added when converting magnetic to compass. Check: if you flew 090° true, you would drift right of track.
Traps that cost marks
Applying variation in the wrong direction; using TAS as groundspeed; forgetting deviation; measuring true course and treating it as magnetic; and following GPS direct-to through controlled airspace or terrain.