C2 Proficiency key terms

A habitual pairing of words that native speakers consider natural, such as 'make a decision' rather than 'do a decision'. Exams test whether you can supply or recognise the partner word that fits idiomatically.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, for example 'to bite the bullet'. Candidates must recognise these in reading and listening, and use them appropriately in speaking and writing.

A verb combined with one or more particles that creates a new meaning, such as 'put off' or 'get away with'. Proficiency tasks often require choosing the correct particle or distinguishing near-synonymous combinations.

The degree of formality and the type of language suited to a particular situation, audience or text type. Choosing the wrong register, such as slang in a formal proposal, damages the impression a candidate makes.

The associations or emotional colouring a word carries beyond its literal meaning, such as 'thrifty' versus 'stingy'. Precise word choice depends on understanding these shades of attitude.

The quality of a text whose ideas are logically organised and easy to follow as a whole. It depends on clear paragraphing, sensible sequencing and a consistent line of argument.

The way sentences are linked together through devices such as pronouns, conjunctions and referencing words. Strong cohesion makes the connections between ideas explicit without becoming mechanical or repetitive.

A word or phrase that signals the relationship between clauses or sentences, for example 'nevertheless', 'whereas' or 'as a result'. Misused linkers are a common weakness in advanced writing.

The sentence, usually at the start of a paragraph, that states the paragraph's main point. It gives readers a clear signal of what the rest of the paragraph will develop.

The division of a written text into paragraphs, each developing one main idea. Sensible paragraphing is explicitly assessed in advanced writing tasks because it shows control of structure.

The overall general meaning of a spoken or written text, as opposed to specific details. Listening and reading tasks often ask you to identify gist before dealing with precise information.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in the text rather than stated directly. Advanced reading and listening questions frequently require you to infer a speaker's attitude or the writer's purpose.

An option or piece of information in a task that seems correct but is not, often because it repeats words from the text while misrepresenting the meaning. Recognising distractors is a core exam skill.

A restatement of an idea in different words while keeping the meaning. Correct answers in advanced exams are usually paraphrases of the text rather than verbatim repetitions.

A word or phrase with a meaning close to another, such as 'begin' and 'commence'. Tasks like key word transformation depend on finding an equivalent expression that fits the given frame.

A task type in which candidates rewrite a sentence so that it means the same as the original, using a given word and a fixed number of words. It tests grammar, vocabulary and collocation under tight constraints.

A text with gaps, each accompanied by four options, where candidates choose the word that fits grammatically and semantically. It typically tests collocation, idiom, phrasal verbs and fine lexical distinctions.

A task where candidates change the form of a given root word, for example from 'decide' to 'indecisive', to complete a text. It tests knowledge of prefixes, suffixes and word-class changes.

A prefix or suffix attached to a root word to change its meaning or grammatical class, such as 'un-' or '-ness'. Accurate use of affixes is central to word formation tasks.

The grammatical category a word belongs to, such as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. Identifying the required class from context is the first step in many word formation items.

A reading task in which removed sentences or paragraphs must be placed back into a text. Success depends on tracking cohesion signals such as pronouns, linkers and lexical chains across sentences.

A speaker's or writer's stance towards their subject, such as scepticism, enthusiasm or resignation. Questions often ask you to identify attitude from tone, word choice and intonation rather than explicit statements.

The overall emotional quality of a text or utterance, for example ironic, mocking or neutral. Tone is conveyed through word choice, sentence rhythm and, in speech, stress and pitch.

The rise and fall of the voice in speech, which signals meaning such as questioning, completion or surprise. Listening for intonation helps candidates detect a speaker's real intent.

The emphasis placed on a particular syllable or word in speech. Shifting stress can change meaning or highlight contrast, so it matters in both listening comprehension and clear delivery.

The way sounds change when words are spoken in fluent sequence, through features such as elision and linking. Unfamiliarity with these changes is a frequent cause of listening breakdown.

Phrases that guide a listener through a talk, such as 'turning now to' or 'to sum up'. Recognising these helps candidates follow the structure of longer recordings.

A speaking task in which one candidate talks alone for an extended period, usually comparing and commenting on prompts. It requires sustained organisation rather than short answers.

The exchange of turns between speakers, including initiating, responding, agreeing and interrupting politely. In paired speaking tasks, candidates are assessed on how well they develop a shared discussion.

The conventions governing who speaks and when in a conversation. Skilled turn-taking means contributing without dominating and inviting your partner in without awkward silences.

The ability to organise spoken language into coherent, well-developed stretches, using appropriate linking, sequencing and relevance. It is a named criterion in speaking assessment at advanced levels.

Language that softens a claim or shows caution, such as 'it could be argued' or 'tend to'. It reflects an academic, nuanced style and is valued in advanced writing and discussion.

Characteristic of informal conversation rather than formal writing, for example 'a bit of a mess'. Recognising colloquial language in recordings helps candidates interpret natural speech.

The omission of words that are understood from context, as in 'She wanted to leave but couldn't'. It appears in both written texts and speech, and can obscure meaning for learners.

A question asked for effect rather than to obtain an answer, common in persuasive writing and speeches. Identifying its function helps candidates understand a writer's argumentative strategy.

Agreement between words in a sentence, especially singular or plural matching between subject and verb. Errors of concord are noticeable in formal writing and reduce accuracy scores.

The instruction in a writing task that defines the subject, audience and purpose. Careful reading of the prompt prevents candidates from drifting off-task, which is heavily penalised.