Cambridge IAL English Language key terms

The variety of language chosen to suit a particular situation, audience and purpose, shaped by formality, field and mode. A text's register explains why its wording feels more or less formal than another on the same topic.

The relationship between writer and reader, including power, distance and affect, signalled through address, modality, politeness and evaluative language. Analysing tenor means explaining how a text constructs or assumes a social relationship with its reader.

The channel of communication, such as spoken, written, or a blend of both, and whether it is monologic or dialogic. Mode affects features like planning, spontaneity, permanence and the amount of shared context assumed.

The subject matter or topical content of a text and the specialised vocabulary associated with it. Identifying field helps separate what a text is about from how it addresses its reader.

The ways a writer constructs an implied reader and steers that reader towards a stance, for example through direct address, shared assumptions or inclusive pronouns. It is a key tool for discussing how texts persuade or involve readers.

Visual and typographic features of a text, including layout, font, colour, spacing, images and punctuation used for effect. Graphological analysis considers how these choices guide attention and create meaning alongside wording.

The study of meaning in context, including implied meaning, assumptions and the effects of politeness or indirectness. Pragmatic analysis explains why an utterance can mean more than the literal words convey.

Meaning that a speaker implies without stating directly, often generated by flouting an expectation such as being brief or relevant. Recognising implicature supports claims about tone, irony and unstated attitudes in a text.

An assumption a text treats as already true and shared with the reader, often triggered by definite articles, factive verbs or possessive constructions. Presuppositions can smuggle in contested ideas without arguing for them openly.

Words whose meaning depends on context, such as pronouns, time words like now and place words like here. Deictic choices reveal who is speaking, who is addressed and how a text anchors itself in time and space.

A set of words related by topic, such as vocabulary of warfare or of medicine. Identifying a lexical field lets you comment on patterns of word choice and the associations a text builds.

A group of words linked by shared meaning rather than by topic alone, for example verbs of movement or adjectives of size. Distinguishing semantic from lexical fields sharpens precision when describing vocabulary patterns.

The associations or emotional colouring a word carries beyond its literal meaning. Connotations are context-dependent, so claims about them should be supported by the surrounding text rather than assumed.

The literal, dictionary-level meaning of a word, independent of emotional associations. Analysing denotation alongside connotation separates what a word refers to from the effects it creates.

The degree of certainty, obligation or possibility expressed through modal verbs, adverbs and related forms. High modality asserts confidence or duty, while low modality hedges; shifts in modality often mark shifting stance.

Language that softens a claim, such as possibly, tends to, or it may be that. Hedges protect the writer from overcommitment and can signal caution, politeness or academic register.

Language that strengthens a claim, such as clearly, undoubtedly, or must. Boosters increase assertive force and can make a text sound confident, authoritative or, at times, overbearing.

A mismatch between what is said and what is meant or between words and situation, often signalled by context, intonation or lexical clash. Identifying irony prevents misreading evaluative stance in a text.

A mode that uses humour, exaggeration or irony to criticise behaviour, institutions or ideas, usually with an implied target. Naming the target and the technique is more useful than simply labelling a text satirical.

Deliberate exaggeration not meant to be taken literally, used for emphasis, humour or persuasion. Hyperbole often works with other figurative devices and can reveal evaluative intensity.

A representation that simplifies or exaggerates selected features of a person or group for comic or critical effect. In language analysis, caricature can be achieved through stereotyped lexis and exaggerated description.

Language that departs from literal usage to create comparison or effect, including metaphor, simile and personification. Analysis should explain the effect of the comparison rather than merely naming the device.

The use of second-person pronouns, direct address or pseudo-intimacy to make a mass text feel personally aimed at each reader. It is common in advertising and charity appeals and constructs a friendly tenor.

The linguistic links that hold a text together, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical repetition. Cohesion concerns surface connections, while coherence concerns whether the whole text makes sense.

The overall logical and thematic unity of a text, including whether ideas follow sensibly and match the reader's expectations. A text can be cohesive at sentence level yet still fail to be coherent.

Referring back to something already mentioned, typically with pronouns or determiners, as when it points to an earlier noun phrase. Anaphoric chains are central to tracking participants across sentences.

Referring forward to something introduced later in the text, often creating suspense or focus. It contrasts with anaphoric reference, which points backwards to already given information.

A word or phrase that signals how parts of a text relate, such as however, so, or by contrast. Discourse markers guide the reader through argument structure and contribute to cohesion and coherence.

A recognised category of text with conventional purposes, structures and language features, such as a review, editorial or recipe. Genre awareness helps candidates predict likely features and judge how far a text follows or breaks conventions.

The conventional spelling system of a language, including rules for capitals, hyphens and punctuation conventions. In analysis, unusual orthography can signal accent, emphasis, informality or deliberate stylistic choice.

The sound system of a language, including phonemes and patterns such as stress and intonation. In written text analysis, phonological features like alliteration and assonance are discussed for their sound effects.

A text that combines more than one semiotic mode, such as words with images, layout or sound. Analysing multimodality means considering how modes interact rather than treating images as decoration.

The organisation of a piece of writing into claims, reasons, evidence and counter-argument, often signalled by discourse markers. Strong analysis and strong writing both depend on recognising how an argument is built.

A question asked for effect rather than to obtain an answer, often inviting agreement or highlighting a point. It can create involvement, challenge a reader or structure a persuasive paragraph.

Words and phrases that express judgement, attitude or intensity, such as appalling, modest or remarkably. Evaluative choices reveal stance and are central to analysing how a text persuades or influences.

Representing a group through a fixed, oversimplified set of characteristics, often through repeated lexical choices. Identifying stereotyping supports critical commentary on representation and implied attitudes.

The way people, events or ideas are constructed in language rather than simply reflected. Analysing representation asks which features are selected, foregrounded or omitted and what that implies.

The ongoing alteration of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and meaning over time, driven by contact, technology and social factors. Candidates should discuss mechanisms and evidence rather than simply listing new words.

Change in a word's meaning over time, including broadening, narrowing, amelioration and pejoration. Examples should be dated and explained, since meanings shift at different rates in different varieties.

A newly coined word or expression, or an existing word used in a new sense. Neologisms often arise from technology, social trends or word formation processes such as blending and compounding.

The processes by which new words are created, including compounding, derivation, blending, clipping, conversion and borrowing. Naming the process precisely strengthens analysis of vocabulary change and child language data.

An approach that judges language use against supposed correct norms and often condemns variation. Debates about usage frequently oppose prescriptivist and descriptivist positions, and candidates should distinguish them clearly.

An approach that describes how language is actually used without ranking varieties as better or worse. It does not deny that conventions exist; it treats variation as normal and contextually motivated.

The variety associated with formal education, publishing and public institutions, defined mainly by grammar and lexis rather than accent. It is a social construct with real prestige effects rather than an inherently superior form.

The way pronunciation varies between speakers and regions, distinct from dialect, which involves grammar and vocabulary. Accent differences carry social evaluations that are attitudes about speakers, not linguistic quality.

A variety distinguished by grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, associated with a region or social group. All speakers use a dialect; the standard is simply one dialect among many.

A variety associated with a particular social group, such as age, class or occupation, rather than a region. Sociolects often differ in vocabulary and stylistic norms and interact with issues of identity and prestige.

The study of word structure, including morphemes such as roots, prefixes and suffixes. Morphological analysis explains how words are built and how children or speakers create new forms.

The rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences, including word order and clause structure. Syntactic analysis examines how structures create meaning and emphasis, not just whether sentences are grammatical.

The symbols and layout used to represent spoken data, such as pauses, overlaps, and non-verbal behaviour. Consistent conventions are essential for making accurate claims about turn-taking and interaction.

The system by which speakers alternate in conversation, including adjacency pairs, preferred responses and repair. Analysing turn-taking shows how participants manage alignment, power and misunderstanding in interaction.