CIA Part 3 key terms

Specific, measurable outcomes an organization aims to achieve within a set timeframe; they guide resource allocation, performance measurement, and decision making across departments.

A performance management framework that translates strategy into objectives and measures across financial, customer, internal process, and learning-and-growth perspectives.

A quantifiable measure used to evaluate how well an organization, unit, or individual is achieving a critical objective; effective indicators are specific, relevant, and tied to strategy.

The number of subordinates who report directly to a single manager; wider spans reduce management layers but require greater employee autonomy and clearer procedures.

The shared values, beliefs, norms, and behavioral patterns that shape how members of an organization interact, make decisions, and respond to change.

A set of interrelated activities that transforms inputs into outputs of value to customers or other stakeholders, often crossing functional boundaries within an organization.

The sequence of primary and support activities through which an organization creates and delivers value, from inbound logistics and operations to marketing, service, and firm infrastructure.

A costing method that assigns overhead costs to products or services based on the activities they consume, using cost drivers to improve accuracy over broad allocation bases.

Sales revenue minus variable costs; it measures the amount available to cover fixed costs and contribute to profit, and supports break-even and product-mix decisions.

A comprehensive financial plan for a defined period that consolidates operating budgets, capital budgets, and projected financial statements into one coordinated organization-wide plan.

A foundational information security model focused on confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems as the core goals of security controls.

The process of identifying threats and vulnerabilities, estimating likelihood and impact, and determining how risks should be treated relative to an organization's risk appetite.

A layered security strategy that uses multiple overlapping controls-such as preventive, detective, and corrective measures-so a single control failure does not expose critical assets.

A security principle that grants users and systems only the minimum access rights needed to perform assigned tasks, reducing exposure to accidental or malicious misuse.

The process of verifying a claimed identity, typically through something the user knows, possesses, or is, before granting access to systems or information.

The transformation of readable data into coded form using an algorithm and key so that only authorized parties can restore and understand the original information.

A social engineering attack that tricks individuals into revealing credentials or sensitive data, often through deceptive emails or websites that impersonate trusted sources.

Documented procedures for maintaining or restoring critical business functions during and after a disruption, including governance, communications, alternate sites, and resource arrangements.

A subset of business continuity planning that specifies how IT systems, data, and infrastructure will be restored after a major outage or disaster within defined recovery objectives.

The hardware, software, networks, data centers, and supporting facilities that provide the foundation for delivering information technology services to an organization.

A discipline that manages IT services through defined processes and service lifecycles to meet agreed service levels and align technology delivery with business needs.

A formal agreement between a service provider and customer that defines expected service levels, responsibilities, performance metrics, and remedies for failing to meet them.

A structured process for requesting, evaluating, approving, implementing, and reviewing changes to IT systems so that risks and disruptions are controlled.

The process of detecting, logging, prioritizing, resolving, and communicating IT service interruptions quickly, with the goal of restoring normal service as soon as possible.

The practice of identifying root causes of recurring or significant IT incidents and implementing permanent fixes or workarounds to reduce future disruption.

A model for delivering computing resources-such as servers, storage, and applications-over a network on demand, often with measured service and rapid elasticity.

A technology that creates logical versions of physical computing resources, allowing multiple operating systems or applications to share one physical host efficiently.

Integrated software that supports core business processes-such as finance, procurement, manufacturing, and human resources-through a shared database and common data definitions.

The branch of accounting that prepares general-purpose financial statements for external users in accordance with established reporting standards and regulatory requirements.

An accounting basis that records revenues when earned and expenses when incurred, regardless of cash timing, providing a more complete picture of financial performance.

The accounting process of determining when and how much revenue to record, typically when control of goods or services transfers to the customer.

The systematic allocation of the cost of a tangible long-lived asset over its useful life, reflecting consumption of economic benefits rather than market value changes.

Working capital is current assets minus current liabilities; it measures short-term liquidity and the resources available to fund day-to-day operations and meet near-term obligations.

The current ratio equals current assets divided by current liabilities; it indicates an organization's ability to pay short-term obligations using assets expected to convert to cash within one year.

Total liabilities divided by total equity; it shows the relative use of debt and equity financing and indicates financial leverage and solvency risk.

A performance measure calculated as gain or income divided by the investment base; it evaluates profitability relative to the resources committed.

The difference between the present value of cash inflows and outflows of a project, discounted at a required rate; positive NPV suggests value creation.

The discount rate at which a project's net present value equals zero; it represents the project's expected compound return for comparison with a hurdle rate.

The weighted average return required by providers of debt and equity financing; it serves as a benchmark for evaluating investment projects and business performance.

The process of evaluating, selecting, and monitoring long-term investments in assets or projects whose benefits extend beyond one year and require significant funding.