CLEP College Composition cheat sheet

Subject-verb agreement: the verb matches the simple subject, not a phrase between them; with 'or/nor,' the verb agrees with the nearer subject; indefinite pronouns (each, everyone, neither) take singular verbs; collective nouns take singular verbs when acting as a unit.

Pronoun case: use nominative (I, he, she, they, who) for subjects and predicate nominatives; objective (me, him, her, them, whom) for objects of verbs/prepositions; 'who' is subject, 'whom' is object; 'between you and me' is correct.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: singular antecedents take singular pronouns; 'everyone, each, either, neither, anybody' are singular; 'they' may refer to a singular antecedent only when the antecedent's gender is unknown and the register permits singular they.

Comma rules: separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction; set off nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses and appositives; after introductory elements; between items in a series; never between subject and verb or before a restrictive clause.

Semicolon and colon: a semicolon joins two independent clauses without a conjunction or separates items containing commas; a colon follows an independent clause and introduces a list, explanation, or quotation.

Modifier placement: place a modifier next to the word it modifies; a dangling modifier lacks a logical subject in the main clause (e.g., 'Walking home, the rain began' is wrong).

Parallel structure: items in a series, paired comparisons (either/or, not only/but also), and lists after a colon must share grammatical form.

Verb tense and form: use past perfect for the earlier of two past events, present perfect for past action with present relevance; avoid shifts in tense within a sentence unless the time changes; distinguish lie/lay, sit/set, rise/raise.

Punctuation of quotations and titles: commas and periods go inside closing quotation marks in American usage; use quotation marks for short works, italics for long works; use apostrophes for possession, not pluralization.

Revision vs. editing: revision changes content, organization, and clarity; editing corrects surface errors; proofreading is the final check for typos.

Sentence combining: combine short sentences by subordinating the less important idea (because, although, when) or by using appositives and participial phrases; avoid stringing independent clauses with commas (comma splices).

Conciseness: delete redundant pairs (each and every, final outcome), empty phrases (due to the fact that → because), and expletive constructions (there is/are) when a direct subject-verb works.

Active vs. passive voice: prefer active when the actor is known and important; passive is appropriate when the actor is unknown or unimportant, or to emphasize the receiver of the action.

Coordination and subordination: use coordination (and, but, or) for equal ideas; use subordination (although, since, while) to show which idea is primary; avoid excessive subordination that obscures the main clause.

Transitions: use transitions to show relationships-addition (moreover), contrast (however), cause (therefore), example (for instance); a transition must match the logical relation between sentences.

Paragraph unity and coherence: each paragraph should develop one main idea, usually stated in a topic sentence; order sentences logically (chronological, spatial, emphatic) and repeat key terms or use pronouns for cohesion.

Avoiding wordiness and jargon: replace nominalizations (make a decision → decide) and inflated diction with plain, specific verbs; define technical terms if the audience is general.

Source integration: introduce borrowed material with a signal phrase (According to Smith...), then paraphrase, summarize, or quote; follow with analysis connecting it to your claim.

Quotation vs. paraphrase: quote exact wording for authority or stylistic force; paraphrase to restate ideas in your own words and sentence structure; summarize to condense the main point of a longer passage.

Plagiarism: using another's words or ideas without attribution, even if paraphrased; common knowledge (widely known facts) needs no citation; direct quotations always need quotation marks and a citation.

Citation basics: MLA in-text citations give author and page (Smith 23); APA gives author, year, and page for direct quotes (Smith, 2020, p. 23); every in-text citation must match a reference-list entry.

Evaluating sources: check author credentials, publication venue, date, and evidence; distinguish primary (original data, firsthand accounts) from secondary (interpretation of primary) sources; peer-reviewed sources carry more authority than anonymous web content.

Synthesizing multiple sources: group sources by idea, show where they agree and disagree, and use your own voice to connect them; avoid a patchwork of quotations with no analysis.

Using evidence fairly: represent sources accurately, do not quote out of context, and acknowledge counterarguments; statistics should include source and date.

Rhetorical situation: identify the writer/speaker, audience, purpose, context, and medium; the argument's effectiveness depends on how well it fits that situation.

Ethos, pathos, logos: ethos = credibility and character; pathos = emotion and values; logos = logic and evidence; most arguments combine all three, and analysis should name which is doing the work.

Claim, evidence, warrant: a claim is the arguable assertion; evidence supports it (facts, examples, testimony); the warrant is the assumption linking evidence to claim; identify unstated warrants to evaluate reasoning.

Tone and diction: analyze word choice, connotation, and level of formality; tone conveys the writer's attitude (ironic, urgent, conciliatory) and shapes the audience's response.

Structure and arrangement: note the order of ideas (problem-solution, cause-effect, comparison), the placement of the thesis, and how the conclusion reinforces or qualifies the argument.

Logical fallacies: ad hominem (attacking the person), straw man (misrepresenting an opponent), false dilemma (only two options), slippery slope, hasty generalization, appeal to authority, and bandwagon.

Audience awareness: consider what the audience already believes, what values it holds, and what evidence it will find credible; effective arguments adapt evidence and tone to that audience.

Visual and multimodal rhetoric: in images or ads, analyze layout, color, symbols, and text-image relationship as persuasive choices, not mere decoration.